References - Systemic and Healthcare-Associated Infections

ⁱ Clindamycin, oral: South African Antibiotic Stewardship Programme. A Pocket Guide to Antibiotic Prescribing for Adults in South Africa, 2015.http://www.fidssa.co.za/images/SAASP_Antibiotic_Gudidelines_2015.pdf
Clindamycin, oral: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
Clindamycin, oral: Bouazza N, Pestre V, Jullien V, Curis E, Urien S, Salmon D, Tréluyer JM. Population pharmacokinetics of clindamycin orally and intravenously administered in patients with osteomyelitis. Br J ClinPharmacol. 2012 Dec;74(6):971-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22486719

ⁱⁱ Empiric parenteral antibiotic therapy (S. aureus infection): Chong YP, Moon SM, Bang KM, Park HJ, Park SY, Kim MN, Park KH, Kim SH, Lee SO, Choi SH, Jeong JY, Woo JH, Kim YS. Treatment duration for uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia to prevent relapse: analysis of a prospective observational cohort study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013 Mar;57(3):11506.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23254436
Empiric parenteral antibiotic therapy (S. aureus infection): Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, Kaplan SL, Karchmer AW, Levine DP, Murray BE, J Rybak M, Talan DA, Chambers HF; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Feb 1;52(3):e18-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21208910

ⁱⁱⁱ Empiric candidaemia therapy (duration of 2 weeks): Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Schuster MG, Vazquez JA, Walsh TJ, Zaoutis TE, Sobel JD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26679628
Empiric candidaemia therapy (duration of 2 weeks): Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, Craven DE, Flynn P, O'Grady NP, Raad II, Rijnders BJ, Sherertz RJ, Warren DK. Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related infection: 2009 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Jul 1;49(1):1-45. . Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Apr 1;50(7):1079. Dosage error in article text. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):457. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19489710

^iv Vancomycin, IV: Reardon J, Lau TT, Ensom MH. Vancomycin loading doses: a systematic review. Ann Pharmacother. 2015 May;49(5):557-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25712445
Vancomycin, IV: Rybak M, Lomaestro B, Rotschafer JC, Moellering R Jr, Craig W, Billeter M, Dalovisio JR, Levine DP. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adult patients: a consensus review of the American Society of HealthSystem Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009 Jan 1;66(1):82-98. Erratum in: Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009 May 15;66(10):887. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19106348
Vancomycin, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^v Antibiotic therapy (candidaemia): Takesue Y, Ueda T, Mikamo H, Oda S, Takakura S, Kitagawa Y, Kohno S; ACTIONs Project. Management bundles for candidaemia: the impact of compliance on clinical outcomes. J AntimicrobChemother. 2015 Feb;70(2):587-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25326087

^vi Amphotericin B, IV: Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM, Pappas PG, van der Horst CM, Edwards JE, Washburn RG, Scheld WM, Karchmer AW, Dine AP, et al. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia.Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N EnglJ Med. 1994 Nov 17;331(20):1325-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7935701
Amphotericin B, IV: Phillips P, Shafran S, Garber G, Rotstein C, Smaill F, Fong I, Salit I, Miller M, Williams K, Conly JM, Singer J, Ioannou S. Multicenter randomized trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B for treatment of candidemia in non-neutropenic patients. Canadian Candidemia Study Group. Eur J ClinMicrobiol Infect Dis. 1997 May;16(5):337-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9228472
Amphotericin B, IV: Anaissie EJ, Darouiche RO, Abi-Said D, Uzun O, Mera J, Gentry LO, Williams T, Kontoyiannis DP, Karl CL, Bodey GP. Management of invasive candidal infections: results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter study of fluconazole versus amphotericin B and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Nov;23(5):964-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8922787
Amphotericin B, IV: Takesue Y, Ueda T, Mikamo H, Oda S, Takakura S, Kitagawa Y, Kohno S; ACTIONs Project. Management bundles for candidaemia: the impact of compliance on clinical outcomes. J AntimicrobChemother. 2015 Feb;70(2):587-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25326087
Amphotericin B, IV: WHO. Diagnosis, Prevention and Management of Cryptococcal disease in HIV- infected Adults, Adolescents and children – 2011. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011.http://www.who.int/en/ Amphotericin B, IV: Atsmon J, Dolev E. Drug-induced hypomagnesaemia : scope and management. Drug Saf. 2005;28(9):763-88. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16119971
Amphotericin B, IV: WHO. Rapid advice: diagnosis, prevention and management of cryptococcal disease in HIVinfected adults, adolescents and children. 2011 [Online][Accessed June 2015] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK299520/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK299520.pdf

^vii Fluconazole, oral: Rex JH, Pappas PG, Karchmer AW. A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group.Clin Infect Dis 2001; 36: 1221–8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12746765
Fluconazole, oral: Edwards JE Jr, Bodey GP, Bowden RA, Büchner T, de Pauw BE, Filler SG, GhannoumMA, Glauser M, Herbrecht R, Kauffman CA, Kohno S, Martino P, Meunier F, Mori T, Pfaller MA, Rex JH, Rogers TR, Rubin RH, Solomkin J, Viscoli C, Walsh TJ, White M. International Conference for the Development of a Consensus on the Management and Prevention of Severe Candidal Infections. Clin Infect Dis. 1997 Jul;25(1):43-59. Review.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9243032
Fluconazole, oral: Andes D, van Ogtrop H. Characterization and quantitation of the pharmacodynamics of fluconazole in a neutropenic murine disseminated candidiasis infection model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43:2116– 20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10471550
SAMF 14th edition pg 327

^viii Echinocandins (specialist motivation): National Institute for Communicable Diseases. The GERMS-SA Annual Report 2016. https://www.nicd.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/GERMS-SA-AR-2016-FINAL.pdf
Echinocandins (specialist motivation): National Department of Health: Essential Drugs Programme. Tertiary and Quaternary EML, June 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/elibrary/hospital-level-tertiary-and-quaternaryessential-medicines-list

^ix Cefazolin, IV: McDanel JS, Perencevich EN, Diekema DJ, Herwaldt LA, Smith TC, ChrischillesEA, Dawson JD, Jiang L, Goto M, Schweizer ML. Comparative effectiveness of beta-lactams versus vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections among 122 hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Aug 1;61(3):361-7.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25900170

^x Flucloxacillin, oral (dose): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^xi Ertapenem, IV (severe penicillin allergy & confirmed Gram negative culture): An MM, Zou Z, Shen H, Zhang JD, Chen ML, Liu P, Wang R, Jiang YY. Ertapenem versus piperacillin/tazobactam for the treatment of complicated infections: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Infect Dis. 2009 Dec 2;9:193. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19951447
Ertapenem (severe penicillin allergy & confirmed Gram negative culture): NICD AMR surveillance for ESKAPE, 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2016.

^xii Empiric antibiotic therapy (surgical wound infections): Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan SL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2015 May 1;60(9):1448. Dosage error in article text.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422

^xiii Empiric antibiotic therapy (surgical wound infections): Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan SL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2015 May 1;60(9):1448. Dosage error in article text.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422
Ceftriaxone, IV (Surgery on female uro-genital tract/ open GIT surgery): Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan SL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2015 May 1;60(9):1448. Dosage error in article text.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422
Metronidazole, IV (Surgery on female uro-genital tract/ open GIT surgery): Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan SL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2015 May 1;60(9):1448. Dosage error in article text.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422

^xiv Vancomycin, IV: Reardon J, Lau TT, Ensom MH. Vancomycin loading doses: a systematic review. Ann Pharmacother. 2015 May;49(5):557-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25712445
Vancomycin, IV: Rybak M, Lomaestro B, Rotschafer JC, Moellering R Jr, Craig W, Billeter M, Dalovisio JR, Levine DP. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adult patients: a consensus review of the American Society of HealthSystem Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009 Jan 1;66(1):82-98. Erratum in: Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009 May 15;66(10):887. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19106348
Vancomycin, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^xv Criterion for empiric antibiotic therapy for MDR-HAP and MDR-VAP: Meta-analysis in guideline - Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, Muscedere J, Sweeney DA, Palmer LB et al. Management of Adults With Hospitalacquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 1;63(5):e61-e111. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577

^xvi Duration of antibiotic therapy (7 days for VAP): Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, Dempsey G. Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Aug 24;2015(8):CD007577. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26301604/
Duration of antibiotic therapy (7 days for VAP): Dimopoulos G, Poulakou G, Pneumatikos IA, Armaganidis A, Kollef MH, Matthaiou DK. Short- vs long-duration antibiotic regimens for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2013 Dec;144(6):1759-1767. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23788274/
Duration of antibiotic therapy (7 days for VAP/HAP): Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, Muscedere J, Sweeney DA, Palmer LB, Napolitano LM, et al. Management of Adults With Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 1;63(5):e61-e111. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw353. Epub 2016 Jul 14. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2017 May 1;64(9):1298. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2017 Oct 15;65(8):1435. Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2017 Nov 29;65(12):2161. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27418577/

^xvii Piperacillin/tazobactam and amikacin: Nau R, Kinzig-Schippers M, Sörgel F, Schinschke S, Rössing R, Müller C, Kolenda H, Prange HW. Kinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of hydrocephalic patients.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997 May;41(5):987-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9145857

^xviii Cefepime, IV (2 g): NICD AMR surveillance for ESKAPE, 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2016. Cefepime, IV (2 g): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^xix Imipenem, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022. Imipenem, IV: NICD AMR surveillance for ESKAPE, 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2016.

^xx Carbapenem (use of imipenem/cilastin and meropenem): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^xxi Ciprofloxacin, oral: NHLS/NICD Communicable Diseases Surveillance Bulletin, April 2015 (Volume 13. No 1). http://www.nicd.ac.za/

^xxii Pneumococcal vaccine (23 valent polysaccharide): ACIP Practice Guidelines - CDC. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, October 12, 2012, Vol 61, No 40.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6140a4.htm?s_cid=mm6140a4_w

^xxiii Gentamicin: SAMF 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

^xxiv Management of Covid-19: National Institute for Communicable diseases. Clinical management of suspected or confirmed Covid-19 disease Version 5 (24th August 2020). https://www.nicd.ac.za/diseases-a-z-index/covid-19/covid19-guidelines/clinical-management-of-suspected-or-confirmed-covid-19-disease/
Management of Covid-19 in pregnancy: Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists. Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection in Pregnancy Guidelines, 24 October 2020. https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/2020- 10-14-coronavirus-covid-19-infection-in-pregnancy-v12.pdf

^xxv Heparin thromboprophylaxis: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-NEMLC COVID-19. Rapid review: A review of the optimal dose of either unfractionated heparin or low molecular weight heparin in the prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with severe COVID‐19: evidence review of the clinical benefit and harm, 13 September 2020. http://www.health.gov.za/
Heparin thromboprophylaxis: Middeldorp S, Coppens M, van Haaps TF, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.14888

^xxvi Heparin – indications for therapeutic doses: National Institute for Communicable diseases. Clinical management of suspected or confirmed Covid-19 disease Version 5 (24th August 2020). https://www.nicd.ac.za/diseases-a-zindex/covid-19/covid-19-guidelines/clinical-management-of-suspected-or-confirmed-covid-19-disease/

^xxvii Corticosteroid therapy: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-NEMLC COVID-19. Rapid review: Corticosteroids for COVID‐19: evidence review of the clinical benefit and harm, 24 October 2020. http://www.health.gov.za/
Corticosteroid therapy: WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID‐19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group, Sterne JAC, Murthy S, Diaz JV et al. Association Between Administration of Systemic Corticosteroids and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients With COVID‐19: A Meta‐analysis. JAMA. 2020 Sep 2;324(13):1–13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32876694/

^xxviii Corticosteroid therapy (pregnancy): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-NEMLC COVID-19. Rapid review: Corticosteroids for COVID‐19: evidence review of the clinical benefit and harm, 24 October 2020. http://www.health.gov.za/
Corticosteroid therapy (pregnancy): WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID‐19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group, Sterne JAC, Murthy S, Diaz JV et al. Association Between Administration of Systemic Corticosteroids and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients With COVID‐19: A Meta‐analysis. JAMA. 2020.A Meta‐analysis. JAMA. 2020 Sep 2;324(13):1–13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32876694/

^xxix Albendazole (with meals) : Rigter IM, Schipper HG, Koopmans RP, van Kan HJ, Frijlink HW, Kager PA, Guchelaar HJ. Relative bioavailability of three newly developed albendazole formulations: a randomized crossover study with healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Mar;48(3):1051- 4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14982808.
Package Insert. Wormadole 400mg chewable tablets. Shanur Healthcare (Pty) Ltd. Date of revision of text 22 January 2024.

^xxx Albendazole plus PAIR surgery: Smego RA Jr, Bhatti S, Khaliq AA, Beg MA. Percutaneous aspiration-injectionreaspiration drainage plus albendazole or mebendazole for hepatic cystic echinococcosis: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Oct 15;37(8):1073-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14523772

^xxxi Artesunate, IV: Artesunate, parenteral: Sinclair D, Donegan S, Isba R, Lalloo DG. Artesunate versus quinine for treating severe malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jun 13;6:CD005967.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22696354

^xxxii Prednisone, oral: Grandière-Pérez L, Ansart S, Paris L, Faussart A, Jaureguiberry S, Grivois JP,Klement E, Bricaire F, Danis M, Caumes E. Efficacy of praziquantel during the incubation and invasive phase of Schistosoma haematobium schistosomiasis in 18 travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006 May;74(5):814-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16687686

^xxxiii Praziquantel, oral: Grandière-Pérez L, Ansart S, Paris L, Faussart A, Jaureguiberry S, Grivois JP,Klement E, Bricaire F, Danis M, Caumes E. Efficacy of praziquantel during the incubation and invasive phase of Schistosoma haematobium schistosomiasis in 18 travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006 May;74(5):814-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16687686

^xxxiv Praziquantel, oral (repeat dose): Grandière-Pérez L, Ansart S, Paris L, Faussart A, Jaureguiberry S, Grivois JP,Klement E, Bricaire F, Danis M, Caumes E. Efficacy of praziquantel during the incubation and invasive phase of Schistosoma haematobium schistosomiasis in 18 travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006 May;74(5):814-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16687686

^xxxv Diazepam, IV: Vassa NT, Doshi HV, Yajnik VH, Shah SS, Joshi KR, Patel SH. Comparative clinical trial of diazepam with other conventional drugs in tetanus. Postgrad Med J. 1974 Dec;50(590):755- 8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4619836 
Diazepam, IV: Wilson KC, Reardon C, Theodore AC, Farber HW. Propylene glycol toxicity: a severe iatrogenic illness in ICU patients receiving IV benzodiazepines: a case series and prospective, observational pilot study. Chest. 2005 Sep;128(3):1674-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16162774

^xxxvi Metronidazole, IV: World Health Organisation. Technical note: Current recommendations for treatment of tetanus during humanitarian emergencies, January 2010. https://www.who.int/diseasecontrol_emergencies/who_hse_gar_dce_2010_en.pdf

^xxxvii Paracetamol (fever in tetanus): Lee BH, Inui D, Suh GY, Kim JY, Kwon JY, Park J, et al: Fever and Antipyretic in Critically ill patients Evaluation (FACE) Study Group. Association of body temperature and antipyretic treatments with mortality of critically ill patients with and without sepsis: multi-centered prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2012 Feb 28;16(1):R33. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22373120

^xxxviii Doxycycline, oral: Chapman AS, Bakken JS, Folk SM, Paddock CD, Bloch KC, Krusell A, et al: Tickborne Rickettsial Diseases Working Group; CDC. Diagnosis and management of tickborne rickettsial diseases: Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichioses, and anaplasmosis--United States: a practical guide for physicians and other health-care and public health professionals. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Mar 31;55(RR-4):1-27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16572105

^xxxix Doxycycline (pregnancy – tick bite fever): Frean J, Grayson W. South African Tick Bite Fever: An Overview. Dermatopathology (Basel). 2019 Jun 26;6(2):70-76. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31700846/
Doxycycline (pregnancy – tick bite fever): Cross R, Ling C, Day NP, McGready R, Paris DH. Revisiting doxycycline in pregnancy and early childhood--time to rebuild its reputation? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016;15(3):367-82. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26680308/
Doxycycline (pregnancy – tick bite fever): McGready R, Prakash JA, Benjamin SJ, Watthanaworawit W, Anantatat T, Tanganuchitcharnchai A, et al. Pregnancy outcome in relation to treatment of murine typhus and scrub typhus infection: a fever cohort and a case series analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Nov 20;8(11):e3327. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25412503/
Doxycycline (pregnancy – tick bite fever): SAMF14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022. Doxycycline (pregnancy – tick bite fever): Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, Dudley JA, Dyer SM, Gideon PS, et al. Antibiotics potentially used in response to bioterrorism and the risk of major congenital malformations. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2009 Jan;23(1):18-28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19228311/

^xl Azithromycin, oral (pregnancy): Cascio A, Colomba C, Antinori S, Paterson DL, Titone L. Clarithromycin versus azithromycin in the treatment of Mediterranean spotted fever in children: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Jan 15;34(2):154-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11740701

^xli Ciprofloxacin, IV: Raoult D, Drancourt M. Antimicrobial therapy of rickettsial diseases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991 Dec;35(12):2457-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1810178

^xlii Treatment failure > 48 hours requiring referral: Chapman AS, Bakken JS, Folk SM, Paddock CD, Bloch KC, Krusell A, et al: Tickborne Rickettsial Diseases Working Group; CDC. Diagnosis and management of tickborne rickettsial diseases: Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichioses, and anaplasmosis--United States: a practical guide for physicians and other health-care and public health professionals. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Mar 31;55(RR4):1-27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16572105

^xliii Ceftriaxone, IV: Acharya G, Butler T, Ho M, Sharma PR, Tiwari M, Adhikari RK, Khagda JB, Pokhrel B, Pathak UN. Treatment of typhoid fever: randomized trial of a three-day course of ceftriaxone versus a fourteen-day course of chloramphenicol. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995 Feb;52(2):162-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7872445
Ceftriaxone, IV: Smith MD, Duong NM, Hoa NT, Wain J, Ha HD, Diep TS, Day NP, Hien TT, White NJ. Comparison of ofloxacin and ceftriaxone for short-course treatment of enteric fever.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994 Aug;38(8):1716-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7986000
Ceftriaxone, IV: Wallace MR, Yousif AA, Mahroos GA, Mapes T, Threlfall EJ, Rowe B, Hyams KC. Ciprofloxacin versus ceftriaxone in the treatment of multiresistant typhoid fever. Eur J ClinMicrobiol Infect Dis. 1993 Dec;12(12):907-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8187784
Ceftriaxone, IV: Islam A, Butler T, Kabir I, Alam NH. Treatment of typhoid fever with ceftriaxone for 5 days or chloramphenicol for 14 days: a randomized clinical trial. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993 Aug;37(8):1572-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8215265
Ceftriaxone, IV: Lasserre R, Sangalang RP, Santiago L. Three-day treatment of typhoid fever with two different doses of ceftriaxone, compared to 14-day therapy with chloramphenicol: a randomized trial. J AntimicrobChemother. 1991 Nov;28(5):765-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1778879
Ceftriaxone, IV: Islam A, Butler T, Nath SK, Alam NH, Stoeckel K, Houser HB, Smith AL. Randomized treatment of patients with typhoid fever by using ceftriaxone or chloramphenicol. J Infect Dis. 1988 Oct;158(4):742-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3171225

^xliv Antiviral, oral (active against herpes zoster) therapeutic class: Tunbridge AJ et al; British Infection Society. Chickenpox in adults ‐ clinical management. J Infect. 2008 Aug;57(2):95‐102. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18555533/

^xlv Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG), IM (indication of immunocompromised with no immunity): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for use of VariZIG--United States, 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013 Jul 19;62(28):574-6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23863705/
SAMF 14th edition, Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin monograph, pg 373.

^xlvi Antivirals to treat herpes zoster (therapeutic class): Tunbridge AJ et al; British Infection Society. Chickenpox in adults ‐ clinical management. J Infect. 2008 Aug;57(2):95‐102. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18555533/

^xlvii Aciclovir, IV - dose adjustment in renal impairment: SAMF 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.

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Standard Treatment Guidelines and Essential Medicines List for South Africa, Adult Hospital Level, 2020-2024_Version 1.2_20 January 2025

Chapter 9 Systemic and Healthcare-Associated Infections_Systemic and Healthcare-Associated Infections