References - Adult Critical Care
i Principles of Critical Care: Marshall JC, Bosco L, Adhikari NK, Connolly B, Diaz JV, Dorman T, et al. What is an intensive care unit? A report of the task force of the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine. J Crit Care. 2017 Feb;37:270-276. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2016.07.015. ii Principles of Critical Care: Chen J. Pharmacology in Critical Illness. In: Oropello JM,
i Principles of Critical Care: Marshall JC, Bosco L, Adhikari NK, Connolly B, Diaz JV, Dorman T, et al. What is an intensive care unit? A report of the task force of the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine. J Crit Care. 2017 Feb;37:270-276. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2016.07.015.
ii Principles of Critical Care: Chen J. Pharmacology in Critical Illness. In: Oropello JM, Pastores SM, Kvetan V. eds. Critical Care. McGraw Hill; Accessed April 04,2022. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493
iii Shock (Definition): Cecconi M, De Backer D, Antonelli M, Beale R, Bakker J, Hofer C, Jaeschke R, Mebazaa A, Pinsky MR, Teboul JL, Vincent JL, Rhodes A. Consensus on circulatory shock and hemodynamic monitoring. Task force of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med. 2014 Dec;40(12):1795-815. doi: 10.1007/s00134-014-3525-z. Epub 2014 Nov 13. PMID: 25392034; PMCID: PMC4239778.
iv Balanced salt solutions: NDoH, Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. http://www.health.gov.za/ Li B, Zhao H, Zhang J, Yan Q, Li T, Liu L. Resuscitation Fluids in Septic Shock: A Network Meta Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Shock. 2020 Jun;53(6):679-685. Doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000001468. PMID: 31693630.
Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, Heels-Ansdell D, Thabane L, Fox-Robichaud A, Mbuagbaw L, Szczeklik W, Alshamsi F, Altayyar S, Ip WC, Li G, Wang M, Wludarczyk A, Zhou Q, Guyatt GH, Cook DJ, Jaeschke R, Annane D; Fluids in Sepsis and Septic Shock Group. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Sep 2;161(5):347-55. doi: 10.7326/M14-0178. PMID: 25047428.
v Fluid Therapy: Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R; SAFE Study Investigators. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004 May 27;350(22):2247-56. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa040232. PMID: 15163774.
Crystalloid versus Hydroxyethyl Starch Trial (CHEST) Management Committee. The Crystalloid versus Hydroxyethyl Starch Trial: protocol for a multi-centre randomised controlled trial of fluid resuscitation with 6% hydroxyethyl starch (130/0.4) compared to 0.9% sodium chloride (saline) in intensive care patients on mortality. Intensive Care Med. 2011 May;37(5):816-23. doi: 10.1007/s00134-010-2117-9. Epub 2011 Feb 10. PMID: 21308360.
vi Vasopressors: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Vasopressors, inotropes as monotherapy or in combination, April 2023. http://www.health.gov.za/. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493) Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L, Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
vii Dobuatamine, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
Dobutamine: MCC registered South African package insert: Pharmaplan Cardiject® powder for IV infusion, 250 mg/vial. National Department of Health: National Department of Health: Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital level STGs and EML. Chapter 20: Emergencies and Injuries.
viii Balanced salt solutions: NDoH, Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. http://www.health.gov.za/ Li B, Zhao H, Zhang J, Yan Q, Li T, Liu L. Resuscitation Fluids in Septic Shock: A Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Shock. 2020 Jun;53(6):679-685. Doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000001468. PMID: 31693630.
Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, Heels-Ansdell D, Thabane L, Fox-Robichaud A, Mbuagbaw L, Szczeklik W, Alshamsi F, Altayyar S, Ip WC, Li G, Wang M, Wludarczyk A, Zhou Q, Guyatt GH, Cook DJ, Jaeschke R, Annane D; Fluids in Sepsis and Septic Shock Group. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Sep 2;161(5):347-55. doi: 10.7326/M14-0178. PMID: 25047428.
ix Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R; SAFE Study Investigators. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004 May 27;350(22):2247- 56. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa040232. PMID: 15163774.
Crystalloid versus Hydroxyethyl Starch Trial (CHEST) Management Committee. The Crystalloid versus Hydroxyethyl Starch Trial: protocol for a multi-centre randomised controlled trial of fluid resuscitation with 6% hydroxyethyl starch (130/0.4) compared to 0.9% sodium chloride (saline) in intensive care patients on mortality. Intensive Care Med. 2011 May;37(5):816-23. doi: 10.1007/s00134-010-2117-9. Epub 2011 Feb 10. PMID: 21308360.
x Vasopressors: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Vasopressors, inotropes as monotherapy or in combination, April 2023. http://www.health.gov.za/. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493)
Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L, Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
xi Dobuatamine, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
Dobutamine: MCC registered South African package insert: Pharmaplan Cardiject® powder for IV infusion, 250 mg/vial. National Department of Health: National Department of Health: Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital level STGs and EML. Chapter 20: Emergencies and Injuries.
xii Acute Kidney Injury: Ostermann M, Wu V, Sokolov D, Lumlertgul N. Definitions of acute renal dysfunction: an evolving clinical and biomarker paradigm. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2021 Dec;27(6):553–9
xiii Staging/Severity of Acute Kidney Injury: Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Acute Kidney Injury (AKI). 2012 Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Kidney Injury (AKI). 2012. Available at: https://kdigo.org/guidelines/acute-kidney-injury/
xiv Protein (Nutrition): Fiaccadori E, Sabatino A, Barazzoni R, Carrero JJ, Cupisti A, De Waele E, Jonckheer J, Singer P, Cuerda C. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in hospitalized patients with acute or chronic kidney disease. Clin Nutr. 2021 Apr;40(4):1644-1668. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2021.01.028. Epub 2021 Feb 9. PMID: 33640205. National Department of Health. Directorate: Nutrition. National Renal Nutrition Practice Guidelines for Adults. June 2018. http://www.health.gov.za/.
xv Kidney Replacement Therapy (Description) Hoste, E.A., Bagshaw, S.M., Bellomo, R., Cely, C.M., Colman, R., Cruz, D.N., Edipidis, K., Forni, L.G., Gomersall, C.D., Govil, D. and Honoré, P.M., 2015. Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study. Intensive care medicine, 41, pp.1411-1423.oannidis M, Oudemans-van Straaten HM. Clinical review: Patency of the circuit in continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care. 2007;11(4):218. doi: 10.1186/cc5937. PMID: 17634148; PMCID: PMC2206533.
Bellomo R, Ronco C. Anticoagulation during CRRT. In: Bellomo R, Baldwin I, Ronco C, Golper T., editors. Atlas of haemofiltration. Sydney: W.B. Saunders; 2002. pp. 63–68.
Unfractionated Heparin: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
xviJoannidis M, Oudemans-van Straaten HM. Clinical review: Patency of the circuit in continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care. 2007;11(4):218. doi: 10.1186/cc5937. PMID: 17634148; PMCID: PMC2206533.
Bellomo R, Ronco C. Anticoagulation during CRRT. In: Bellomo R, Baldwin I, Ronco C, Golper T., editors. Atlas of haemofiltration. Sydney: W.B. Saunders; 2002. pp. 63–68.
Unfractionated Heparin: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
xvii Joannidis M, Oudemans-van Straaten HM. Clinical review: Patency of the circuit in continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care. 2007;11(4):218. doi: 10.1186/cc5937. PMID: 17634148; PMCID: PMC2206533.
Bellomo R, Ronco C. Anticoagulation during CRRT. In: Bellomo R, Baldwin I, Ronco C, Golper T., editors. Atlas of haemofiltration. Sydney: W.B. Saunders; 2002. pp. 63–68.
Enoxaparin, SC: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
xviii Low molecular weight heparin (first line option - prophylaxis): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDPAdult Hospital Level. Medicine Review LMWH vs. UFH for the prophylaxis and treatment of venous thromboembolism and acute coronary syndromes, April 2018. http://www.health.gov.za/ Low molecular weight heparin (first line option - prophylaxis): Junqueira DR, Zorzela LM, Perini E. Unfractionated heparin versus low molecular weight heparins for avoiding heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in postoperative patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 21;4:CD007557. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28431186
Low molecular weight heparin (first line option - prophylaxis): Wein L, Wein S, Haas SJ, Shaw J, Krum H. Pharmacological venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in hospitalized medical patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2007 Jul 23;167(14):147686.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17646601
Low molecular weight heparin (first line option - prophylaxis): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDPAdult
Enoxaparin, SC: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
xix Unfractionated Heparin: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
Low molecular weight heparin (first line option - prophylaxis): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDPAdult Hospital Level. Medicine Review LMWH vs. UFH for the prophylaxis and treatment of venous thromboembolism and acute coronary syndromes, April 2018. http://www.health.gov.za/
xx Red Cell Transfusions: Wise RD, de Vasconcellos K, Gopalan PD, Ahmed N, Alli A, Joubert I, Kabambi KF, Mathiva LR, Mdladla N, Mer M, Miller M, Mrara B, Omar S, Paruk F, Richards GA, Skinner D, von Rahden R. Critical Care Society of Southern Africa adult patient blood management guidelines: 2019. Round-table meeting, CCSSA Congress, Durban, 2018. South Afr J Crit Care 2020;36(1):2-19. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAJCC.2020.v36i1.440.
xxi van Baarle FLF, van de Weerdt EK, van der Velden WJFM, Ruiterkamp RA, Tuinman PR, Ypma PF, van den Bergh WM, Demandt AMP, Kerver ED, Jansen AJG, Westerweel PE, Arbous SM, Determann RM, van Mook WNKA, Koeman M, Mäkelburg ABU, van Lienden KP, Binnekade JM, Biemond BJ, Vlaar APJ. Platelet Transfusion before CVC Placement in Patients with Thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med. 2023 May 25;388(21):1956-1965. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2214322. PMID: 37224197.
xxii Platelet Transfusions: Indications for platelet transfusions: Critical care society of Southern Africa. Guidelines for the provison of critical care in South Africa. July 2022. https://criticalcare.org.za/wpcontent/uploads/2022/07/CCSSA-guidelines-final.pdf
xxiii Plasma: Wise RD, de Vasconcellos K, Gopalan PD, Ahmed N, Alli A, Joubert I, Kabambi KF, Mathiva LR, Mdladla N, Mer M, Miller M, Mrara B, Omar S, Paruk F, Richards GA, Skinner D, von Rahden R. Critical Care Society of Southern Africa adult patient blood management guidelines: 2019. Round-table meeting, CCSSA Congress, Durban, 2018. South Afr J Crit Care 2020;36(1):2-19. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAJCC.2020.v36i1.440.
xxiv Cryoprecipitate WCBS. Clinical guidelines - Western Cape Blood Service [Internet]. Western Cape Blood Service - Do something remarkable. 2020 [cited 2023 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.wcbs.org.za/clinical-information/clinical-guidelines/
xxv Tranexamic Acid (IV): Tranexamic acid, IV: CRASH-2 trial collaborators: Shakur H et al. Effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events, and blood transfusion in trauma patients with significant haemorrhage (CRASH-2): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2010; 376:23-32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20554319
Roberts I et al. The importance of early treatment with tranexamic acid in bleedingtrauma patients: an exploratory analysis of the CRASH-2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011; 377:1096-1101. Ker K, Roberts I, Shakur H, Coats TJ. Antifibrinolytic drugs for acute traumatic injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 May 9;(5):CD004896. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25956410
xxvi Tranexamic Acid (IV): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022. Tranexamic acid, IV: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Tranexamic acid, IV, for management of post partum haemorrhage in pregnant women, 11 October 2017. http://www.health.gov.za/
xxvii Massive Transfusion Protocol (Definitions): Shah A, Kerner V, Stanworth SJ, Agarwal S. Major haemorrhage: past, present and future. Anaesthesia. 2023 Jan;78(1):93-104. doi: 10.1111/anae.15866. Epub 2022 Sep 12. PMID: 36089857; PMCID: PMC10087440.
xxviii Neuro-psychological Support: Reade MC, Finfer S. Sedation and Delirium in the Intensive Care Unit. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jan 30;370(5):444–54.
xxix Neuro-psychological Support: Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, Needham DM, Slooter AJC, Pandharipande PP, et al. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Pain, Agitation/Sedation, Delirium, Immobility, and Sleep Disruption in Adult Patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2018 Sep;46(9):e825–73.
Payen JF, Bru O, Bosson JL, Lagrasta A, Novel E, Deschaux I, et al. Assessing pain in critically ill sedated patients by using a behavioral pain scale. Crit Care Med. 2001 Dec;29(12):2258–63.
xxx Neuro-psychological Support: Khan BA, Perkins AJ, Gao S, Hui SL, Campbell NL, Farber MO, et al. The CAM-ICU-7 Delirium Severity Scale: A Novel Delirium Severity Instrument for Use in the Intensive Care Unit. Crit Care Med. 2017 May;45(5):851–7.
xxxi Ketamine: Ketamine, IV: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ketamine (adjunctive or monotherapy) for analgosedation in traumatised intubated adults on mechanical ventilation, September 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatmentguidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xxxii Neuro-psychologicl Support: Fuchs B, Bellamy C. Sedative-analgesic medications in critically ill adults:Selection, initiation, maintenance, and withdrawal. In: UpToDate, Post TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA. (Accessed on April 04, 2022.)
Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ, Brophy GM, O’Neal PV, Keane KA, et al. The Richmond AgitationSedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Nov 15;166(10):1338–44.
National Department of Health: National Department of Health: Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital level STGs and EML. Chapter 12: Anaesthesiology And Intensive Care.
National Department of Health: National Department of Health: Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital level STGs and EML. Chapter 23: Sedation. Morphine, IV (dosing): South African Medicines Formulary. 12th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2016. Fentanyl, IV: The South African Society of Anaesthesiologists. South African Acute Pain Guidelines. SAJAA 2009;15(6):1-120. http://www.sasaweb.com/content/images/SASA_Pain_Guidelines.pdf
Fentanyl, IV: Scholz J, Steinfath M, Schulz M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of alfentanil, fentanyl and sufentanil. An update. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1996 Oct;31(4):275-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8896944
Ketamine, IV: McNicol ED, Schumann R, Haroutounian S. A systematic review and meta-analysis of ketamine for the prevention of persistent post-surgical pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2014 Nov;58(10):1199-213. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25060512
Ketamine, IV: Brinck EC, Tiippana E, Heesen M, Bell RF, Straube S, Moore RA, Kontinen V. Perioperative intravenous ketamine for acute postoperative pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Dec 20;12:CD012033. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30570761
Tramadol, IV: Houmes RJ, Voets MA, Verkaaik A, Erdmann W, Lachmann B. Efficacy and safety of tramadol versus morphine for moderate and severe postoperative pain with special regard to respiratory depression. Anesth Analg. 1992 Apr;74(4):510-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1554117
xxxii Tramadol, IV: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review: Tramadolol, IV July 2015. http://health.gov.za/
xxxiii Neuro-psychological Support: Khan BA, Perkins AJ, Gao S, Hui SL, Campbell NL, Farber MO, et al. The CAM-ICU-7 Delirium Severity Scale: A Novel Delirium Severity Instrument for Use in the Intensive Care Unit. Crit Care Med. 2017 May;45(5):851–7.
xxxiv Neuro-psychological Support: Khan BA, Perkins AJ, Gao S, Hui SL, Campbell NL, Farber MO, et al. The CAM-ICU-7 Delirium Severity Scale: A Novel Delirium Severity Instrument for Use in the Intensive Care Unit. Crit Care Med. 2017 May;45(5):851–7.
xxxv Sedation Medicines: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
Propofol Dosage. https://www.drugs.com/dosage/propofol.html
xxxvi Delirium in Critical Care: Burry et al. (2019) Pharmacological interventions for the treatment of delirium in critically ill adults.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 9. Art. No.: CD011749. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011749.pub2.
Devlin et al. (2018) Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Pain, Agitation/Sedation, Delirium, Immobility, and Sleep Disruption in Adult Patients in the ICU. Critical Care Medicine. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000003299 Stollings et al. (2021) Delirium in critical illness: clinical manifestations, outcomes, and management. Intensive Care Med 47:1089–1103 DOI: 10.1007/s00134-021-06503-1
xxxvii Neuro-psychologicl Support: Khan BA, Perkins AJ, Gao S, Hui SL, Campbell NL, Farber MO, Chlan LL, Boustani MA. The Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU-7 Delirium Severity Scale: A Novel Delirium Severity Instrument for Use in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2017 May;45(5):851-857. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000002368. PMID: 28263192; PMCID: PMC5392153.
xxxviii National Department of Health. Directorate: Nutrition. National Parenteral Nutrition Practice. Guidelines for Adults. 2016. http://www.health.gov.za/. National Department of Health. Directorate: Nutrition. National Enteral Nutrition Practice. Guidelines for Adults. 2016. http://www.health.gov.za/.
xxxix Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis: Mohebbi L, Hesch K. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the intensive care unit. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2009 Oct;22(4):373-6. doi: 10.1080/08998280.2009.11928562. PMID: 21240306; PMCID: PMC2760176.
Bardou, M., Quenot, JP. & Barkun, A. Stress-related mucosal disease in the critically ill patient. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 12, 98–107 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2014.235
xl Pantoprazole IV Tsoi KK, Hirai HW, Sung JJ. Meta-analysis: comparison of oral vs. intravenous proton pump inhibitors in patients with peptic ulcer bleeding. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013 Oct;38(7):721-8. doi: 10.1111/apt.12441. Epub 2013 Aug 5. PMID: 23915096.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and dyspepsia in adults:investigation and management. 2014. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg184/resources/gastrooesophageal-reflux-disease-and-dyspepsia-inadults-investigation-and-management-pdf-35109812699845
xli PH Analysis (Aspirate): Moore M, Thomson R. Confirmation of nasogastric tube placement in critical care. Crit Care. 2013;17(Suppl 2):P244. doi: 10.1186/cc12182. Epub 2013 Mar 19. PMCID: PMC3642739.
xlii Diarrrhoea (Description): Dionne JC, Mbuagbaw L. Diarrhea in the critically ill: definitions, epidemiology, risk factors and outcomes. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2023 Apr 1;29(2):138-144. doi: 10.1097/MCC.0000000000001024. Epub 2023 Feb 22. PMID: 36825593.
xliii Acute Severe Pancreatitis (Description): Finkenstedt, A., Jaber, S. & Joannidis, M. Ten tips to manage severe acute pancreatitis in an intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 49, 1127–1130 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-023-07121-9 Leppäniemi A, Tolonen M, Tarasconi A, Segovia-Lohse H, Gamberini E, Kirkpatrick AW, Ball CG, Parry N, Sartelli M, Wolbrink D, van Goor H, Baiocchi G, Ansaloni L, Biffl W, Coccolini F, Di Saverio S, Kluger Y, Moore E, Catena F. 2019 WSES guidelines for the management of severe acute pancreatitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2019 Jun 13;14:27. doi: 10.1186/s13017-019-0247-0. PMID: 31210778; PMCID: PMC6567462.
xliv Acute Cholecystitis (Description): Finkenstedt, A., Jaber, S. & Joannidis, M. Ten tips to manage severe acute pancreatitis in an intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 49, 1127–1130 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-023-07121-9
Leppäniemi A, Tolonen M, Tarasconi A, Segovia-Lohse H, Gamberini E, Kirkpatrick AW, Ball CG, Parry N, Sartelli M, Wolbrink D, van Goor H, Baiocchi G, Ansaloni L, Biffl W, Coccolini F, Di Saverio S, Kluger Y, Moore E, Catena F. 2019 WSES guidelines for the management of severe acute pancreatitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2019 Jun 13;14:27. doi: 10.1186/s13017-019-0247-0. PMID: 31210778; PMCID: PMC6567462
xlv Abdominal Compartment Syndrome (Description) Harris, H. & Smith, C. J. (2013). Understanding abdominal compartment syndrome. Nursing Critical Care, 8 (3), 45-47. doi: 10.1097/01.CCN.0000429385.10473.7f.
Rajasurya V, Surani S. Abdominal compartment syndrome: Often overlooked conditions in medical intensive care units. World J Gastroenterol. 2020 Jan 21;26(3):266-278. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v26.i3.266. PMID: 31988588; PMCID: PMC6969886.
Bailey, J., Shapiro, M.J. Abdominal compartment syndrome. Crit Care 4, 23 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1186/cc646
xlvi Atenolol (oral): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022.
xlvii Myxoedema Coma (Description) Acharya R, Cheng C, Bourgeois M, Masoud J, McCray E. Myxedema Coma: A Forgotten Medical Emergency With a Precipitous Onset. Cureus. 2020 Sep 16;12(9):e10478. doi: 10.7759/cureus.10478. PMID: 33083180; PMCID: PMC7567317. Mohsen. Myxedema Coma or Crisis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology [Internet]. Medscape.com. Medscape; 2023 [cited 2023 Nov 17]. Available from: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/123577-overview
xlviii Myxoedema Coma Pinar, A.U. (2017). Management of Myxedema Coma. In: Hyzy, R. (eds) Evidence Based Critical Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43341-7_51
xlix Myxoedema Coma (Thyroid hormone replacement ) South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022..
l Corticosteroid: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022..
li Glucose Levels: Johan Mårtensson, Moritoki Egi, Rinaldo Bellomo, Chapter 79 - Blood Glucose Control in Critical Care,Editor(s): Claudio Ronco, Rinaldo Bellomo, John A. Kellum, Zaccaria Ricci, Critical Care Nephrology (Third Edition), Elsevier, 2019, Pages 464-469.e2, ISBN 9780323449427, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-44942-7.00079-0.
lii Glucagon: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022..
liii Hyperglycaemia (Description) Chawla, Rajeev; Gangopadhyay, Kalyan Kumar1; Lathia, Tejal Bipin2; Punyani, Hitesh3; Kanungo, Alok4; Sahoo, Abhay Kumar5; Seshadri, Krishna G.6. Management of Hyperglycemia in Critical Care. Journal of Diabetology 13(1):p 33-42, Jan–Mar 2022. | DOI: 10.4103/jod.jod_69_21.
liv Definition: Sepsis: Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287. PMID: 26903338; PMCID: PMC4968574.
lv SOFA SCORE; Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J, et al. The SOFA (Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:707–710.
Gyawali B, Ramakrishna K, Dhamoon AS. Sepsis: The evolution in definition, pathophysiology, and management. SAGE Open Med. 2019 Mar 21;7:2050312119835043. doi: 10.1177/2050312119835043 lvi Balanced salt solutions: NDoH, Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. http://www.health.gov.za/
lvii Sepsis in ICU (Vasopressors): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Vasopressors, inotropes as monotherapy or in combination, April 2023. http://www.health.gov.za/. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493)
Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L,Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
lviii Sepsis in ICU (Dobutamine): Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L, Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town. 2022
lix Sepsis in ICU (Vasopressors): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Vasopressors, inotropes as monotherapy or in combination, April 2023. http://www.health.gov.za/
https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493)
Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L, Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
lx Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid (Prolonged Infusions): Fawaz S, Dixon B, Barton S, Mohamed A, NabhaniGebara S. Suitability of Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid for Administration via Prolonged Infusion. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2020 Jan 10;14:103-109. doi:10.2147/DDDT.S230459.https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=1 43516493)
lxi Meropenem (Dosing Interval): Lertwattanachai, T., Montakantikul, P., Tangsujaritvijit, V. et al. Clinical outcomes of empirical high-dose meropenem in critically ill patients with sepsis and septic shock: a randomized controlled trial. j intensive care 8, 26 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40560-020-00442-7
lxii Ceftazidime-Avibactam: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ceftazidime-avibactam for the treatment of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) bacteraemia, July2023 (Updated September 2023). http://www.health.gov.za/. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1944§ionid=143516493
lxiii Empiric antifingal therapy: Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Schuster MG, Vazquez JA, Walsh TJ, Zaoutis TE, Sobel JD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ933. Epub 2015 Dec 16. PMID: 26679628; PMCID: PMC4725385.
lxiv Hydrocortisone (IV): Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, Antonelli M, Coopersmith CM, French C, Machado FR, Mcintyre L, Ostermann M, Prescott HC, Schorr C, Simpson S, Wiersinga WJ, Alshamsi F, Angus DC, Arabi Y, Azevedo L, Beale R, Beilman G, Belley-Cote E, Burry L, Cecconi M, Centofanti J, Coz Yataco A, De Waele J, Dellinger RP, Doi K, Du B, Estenssoro E, Ferrer R, Gomersall C, Hodgson C, Hylander Møller M, Iwashyna T, Jacob S, Kleinpell R, Klompas M, Koh Y, Kumar A, Kwizera A, Lobo S, Masur H, McGloughlin S, Mehta S, Mehta Y, Mer M, Nunnally M, Oczkowski S, Osborn T, Papathanassoglou E, Perner A, Puskarich M, Roberts J, Schweickert W, Seckel M, Sevransky J, Sprung CL, Welte T, Zimmerman J, Levy M. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-e1143. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000005337. PMID: 34605781.
lxv End of Life Care: Paruk F, Kissoon N, Hartog CS, Hodgson RE, Lipman J, Guidet B, Du B, Argent A. The Durban World Congress Ethics Round Table: III. Withdrawing Mechanical ventilation- The approach should be individualized. J Crit Care. 2014 Jun 4. pii: S0883-9441(14)00223-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.05.022. End of Life Care: Joynt GM, Lipman J, Hartog C, Guidet B, Paruk F, Feldman C, Kissoon N, Sprung CL. The Durban World Congress Ethics Round Table IV: Health care professional end-of-life decision making. J Crit Care. 2015 Apr;30(2):224-30. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.10.011
lxv End of Life Care: Sprung CL, Paruk F, Kissoon N, Hartog CS, Lipman J, Du B, Argent A, Hodgson E, Guidet B, Groeneveld ABJ and Feldman C. The Durban World Congress Ethics Round Table Conference Report: I. Differences between withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatments. Journal of Critical Care 2014 Dec;29(6):890-5. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.06.022
lxvi End of Life Care: Thomson D, Joubert I, K De Vasconcellos, F Paruk, S Mokogong, R Mathivha, et al. South African Guidelines on the Determination of Death. South African Medical Journal [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Nov 21];111(4b):367–80. Available from: http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/13264/9746
lxvii End of Life Care: Thomson D, Joubert I, K De Vasconcellos, F Paruk, S Mokogong, R Mathivha, et al. South African Guidelines on the Determination of Death. South African Medical Journal [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Nov 21];111(4b):367–80. Available from: http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/13264/9746
Standard Treatment Guidelines and Essential Medicines List for South Africa Adult Hospital _Chapter 23: Adult Critical Care_NEMLC Medicine Recommendations Review Cycle_ 2020_2023