References - Emergencies and Injuries
i Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Resuscitation Council of South Africa. Advanced Cardiac Arrest Algorithm for Suspected Communicable Disease (Respiratory), 2021. https://resus.co.za/ Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Atkins DL, Sasson C, Hsu A, Aziz K, Becker LB, Berg RA, et al.; Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and Get With the Guidelines-Resuscitati
i Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Resuscitation Council of South Africa. Advanced Cardiac Arrest Algorithm for Suspected Communicable Disease (Respiratory), 2021. https://resus.co.za/
Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Atkins DL, Sasson C, Hsu A, Aziz K, Becker LB, Berg RA, et al.; Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and Get With the Guidelines-Resuscitation, Adult and Pediatric Task Forces of the American Heart Association in Collaboration With the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Respiratory Care, American Society of Anesthesiologists, and the Society of Critical Care Anesthesiologists. 2022 Interim Guidance to Health Care Providers for Basic and Advanced Cardiac Life Support in Adults, Children, and Neonates With Suspected or Confirmed COVID-19: From the Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and Get With The Guidelines-Resuscitation Adult and Pediatric Task Forces of the American Heart Association in Collaboration With the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Respiratory Care, the Society of Critical Care Anesthesiologists, and American Society of Anesthesiologists. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2022 Apr;15(4):e008900. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35072519/
ii Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations & PPE: Brown A, Schwarcz L, Counts CR, Barnard LM, Yang BY, Emert JM, et al. Risk for Acquiring Coronavirus Disease Illness among Emergency Medical Service Personnel Exposed to Aerosol-Generating Procedures. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021 Sep;27(9):2340-2348. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34197282/
iii Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
iv Sodium chloride 0.9% (cautious bolus administration in CPR): Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing, G, Harjola V, et al., The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European Respiratory Journal Sep 2019, 54 (3) 1901647. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31473594/
Sodium chloride 0.9% (cautious bolus administration in CPR): Sagristà-Sauleda J, Angel J, Sambola A, PermanyerMiralda G. Hemodynamic effects of volume expansion in patients with cardiac tamponade. Circulation. 2008 Mar 25;117(12):1545-9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18332261/
v Amiodarone, IV: McLeod SL, Brignardello-Petersen R, Worster A, You J, Iansavichene A, Guyatt G, Cheskes S. Comparative effectiveness of antiarrhythmics for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and network metaanalysis. Resuscitation. 2017 Dec;121:90-97. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29037886
Amiodarone, IV: Chowdhury A, Fernandes B, Melhuish TM, White LD. Antiarrhythmics in Cardiac Arrest: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Heart Lung Circ. 2018 Mar;27(3):280-290. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28988724
Amiodarone, IV: Kudenchuk PJ, Cobb LA, Copass MK, Cummins RO, Doherty AM, Fahrenbruch CE, Hallstrom AP, Murray WA, Olsufka M, Walsh T. Amiodarone for resuscitation after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 16;341(12):871-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10486418
Amiodarone, IV: Morrison LJ, Deakin CD, Morley PT, Callaway CW, Kerber RE, Kronick SL, Lavonas EJ, Link MS, Neumar RW, Otto CW, Parr M, Shuster M, Sunde K, Peberdy MA, Tang W, Hoek TL, Böttiger BW, Drajer S, Lim SH, Nolan JP; Advanced Life Support Chapter Collaborators. Part 8: Advanced life support: 2010 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. Circulation. 2010 Oct 19;122(16 Suppl 2):S345-421. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20956256
vi Adrenaline (epinephrine), intra-osseous: Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Advanced cardiac arrest algorithm, 2015. www.resuscitationcouncil.co.za
vii Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): 2020 American Heart Association. 2020 American Heart Association Guidelines for CPR and ECC https://cpr.heart.org/en/resuscitation-science/cpr-and-ecc-guidelines
Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): Ebell MH, Vellinga A, Masterson S, Yun P. Meta-analysis of the accuracy of termination of resuscitation rules for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Emerg Med J. 2019 Aug;36(8):479-484. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31142552/
Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): Lin YY, Lai YY, Chang HC, Lu CH, Chiu PW, Kuo YS, Huang SP, et al. Predictive performances of ALS and BLS termination of resuscitation rules in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest for different resuscitation protocols. BMC Emerg Med. 2022 Mar 27;22(1):53. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35346055/
viii Blood glucose control: Clifton W. Callaway, Michael W. Donnino, Ericka L. Fink, Romergryko G. Geocadin, Eyal Golan, Karl B. Kern, Marion Leary, William J. Meurer, Mary Ann Peberdy, Trevonne M. Thompson, Janice L. Zimmerman. 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: Post–Cardiac Arrest Care. Circulation. 2015;132:S465-S482. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26472996
ix Temperature control: Dankiewicz J, Cronberg T, Lilja G, Jakobsen JC, Levin H, Ullén S, et al; TTM2 Trial Investigators. Hypothermia versus Normothermia after Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest. N Engl J Med. 2021 Jun 17;384(24):2283-2294. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34133859/
x Anticoagulants (deep vein prophylaxis): Dentali F, Douketis JD, Gianni M, Lim W, Crowther MA. Meta-analysis: anticoagulant prophylaxis to prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism in hospitalized medical patients. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(4):278. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17310052
xi Dextrose 50%, IV: Moore C, Woollard M. Dextrose 10% or 50% in the treatment of hypoglycaemia out of hospital? A randomised controlled trial. Emerg Med J. 2005 Jul;22(7):512-5. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15983093/
Dextrose 50%, IV: The Society for Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes of South Africa Type 2 Diabetes Guidelines Expert Committee. The 2017 SEMDSA Guideline for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Guideline Committee. JEMDSA 2017; 21(1)(Supplement 1): S1-S196. http://www.jemdsa.co.za/index.php/JEMDSA/article/view/647/937
xii Sodium chloride 0.9% (cautious bolus administration in post cardiac arrest): Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing, G, Harjola V, et al., The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European Respiratory Journal Sep 2019, 54 (3) 1901647. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31473594/
Sodium chloride 0.9% (cautious bolus administration in post cardiac arrest): Sagristà-Sauleda J, Angel J, Sambola A, Permanyer-Miralda G. Hemodynamic effects of volume expansion in patients with cardiac tamponade. Circulation. 2008 Mar 25;117(12):1545-9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18332261/
xiii Adrenaline (epinephrine): Clifton W. Callaway, Michael W. Donnino, Ericka L. Fink, Romergryko G. Geocadin, Eyal Golan, Karl B. Kern, Marion Leary, William J. Meurer, Mary Ann Peberdy, Trevonne M. Thompson, Janice L. Zimmerman. 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: Post–Cardiac Arrest Care. Circulation. 2015;132:S465-S482. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26472996
xiv Anticonvulsants (seizures): Clifton W. Callaway, Michael W. Donnino, Ericka L. Fink, Romergryko G. Geocadin, Eyal Golan, Karl B. Kern, Marion Leary, William J. Meurer, Mary Ann Peberdy, Trevonne M. Thompson, Janice L. Zimmerman. 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: Post–Cardiac Arrest Care. Circulation. 2015;132:S465-S482. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26472996
xv Paracetamol, oral: Nolan JP, Soar J, Cariou A, Cronberg T, Moulaert VR, Deakin CD, Bottiger BW, Friberg H, Sunde K, Sandroni C. European Resuscitation Council and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine Guidelines for Postresuscitation Care 2015: Section 5 of the European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015. Resuscitation. 2015 Oct;95:202-222. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26477702
Paracetamol, oral: Gebhardt K, Guyette FX, Doshi AA, Callaway CW, Rittenberger JC; Post Cardiac Arrest Service. Prevalence and effect of fever on outcome following resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2013 Aug;84(8):1062-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23619740
xvi Promethazine, IM/IV: Shaker MS, Wallace DV, Golden DBK, Oppenheimer J, Bernstein JA, Campbell RL, et al., Anaphylaxis-a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020 Apr;145(4):1082-1123. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32001253/
xvii Hydrocortisone, IV: Shaker MS, Wallace DV, Golden DBK, Oppenheimer J, Bernstein JA, Campbell RL, et al., Anaphylaxis-a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020 Apr;145(4):1082-1123. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32001253/
xviii Fresh frozen plasma: Prematta M, Gibbs JG, Pratt EL, Stoughton TR, Craig TJ. Fresh frozen plasma for the treatment of hereditary angioedema. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2007 Apr;98(4):383-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17458436
Fresh frozen plasma: Hassen GW, Kalantari H, Parraga M, Chirurgi R, Meletiche C, Chan C, Ciarlo J, Gazi F, Lobaito C, Tadayon S, Yemane S, Velez C. Fresh frozen plasma for progressive and refractory angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-induced angioedema. J Emerg Med. 2013 Apr;44(4):764-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23114109
Fresh frozen plasma: Culley CM, DiBridge JN, Wilson GL Jr. Off-Label Use of Agents for Management of Serious or Lifethreatening Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor-Induced Angioedema. Ann Pharmacother. 2016 Jan;50(1):47-59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26416949
xix Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xx Oxygen (medically ill patients): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Primary Healthcare and Adult Hospital Level. Evidence summary – oxygen therapy in acutely ill patients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693- 1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, Güell-Rous MR, Alhazzani W, Soccal PM, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30355567/
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Alves M, Prada L, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Effect of oxygen supply on mortality in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan 1;28(1):11-18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079738/
xxi Salbutamol nebulisation (anaphylaxis): Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2015/16. www.resuscitationcouncil.co.za
xxii Ipratropium nebulisation (anaphylaxis): Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2015/16. www.resuscitationcouncil.co.za
xxiii Promethazine, IV/ cetirizine, oral: Sheikh A, ten Broek Vm, Brown SG, Simons FE. H1-antihistamines for the treatment of anaphylaxis with and without shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Jan 24;(1):CD006160. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17253584
Promethazine, IV/ cetirizine, oral: Resuscitation Council of South Africa, Emergency Management of Anaphylaxis Guidelines, 2015. https://resus.co.za/anaphylaxis/
Promethazine, IV/ cetirizine, oral: Fernando SL, Broadfoot AJ. Ondansetron anaphylaxis: a case report and protocol for skin testing. Br J Anaesth. 2009 Feb;102(2):285-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19151059
xxiv Olanzapine, oral/oral dispersible tablet/IM/: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Olanzapine for delirium, 9 August 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standardtreatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Olanzapine, oral /oral dispersible tablet/IM: Taylor, David; Paton, Carol; Kapur, Shitij. The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines, Thirteenth Edition. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2019. NICE CG103: Delirium: prevention, diagnosis and management in hospital and long-term care https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg103.
xxv Benzodiazepine (dosing): Taylor, David; Paton, Carol; Kapur, Shitij. The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines, Thirteenth Edition. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2019 Benzodiazepine (dosing): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxvi Benzodiazepines (dose in the elderly): Taylor, David; Paton, Carol; Kapur, Shitij. The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines, Thirteenth Edition. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2019 Benzodiazepines (dose in the elderly): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxvii Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Ambrose ML, Bowden SC, Whelan G. Thiamin treatment and working memory function of alcohol-dependent people: preliminary findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001 Jan;25(1):112-6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11198705/
Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S. Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 1;2013(7):CD004033. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23818100
Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA; Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol: guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002 Nov-Dec;37(6):513-21. Erratum in: Alcohol Alcohol. 2003 May-Jun;38(3):291. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12414541/
xxviii Morphine, parenteral (Caution): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Morphine for the treatment of acute pulmonary distress, May 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Hendrikse C, Ngah V, Kallon II, Thom G, Leong TD, Cohen K, McCaul M. Signal of harm in morphine use in adults with acute pulmonary oedema: A rapid systematic review. S Afr Med J. 2023 Aug 3;113(8):39-43. doi: 10.7196/SAMJ.2023.v113i8.348. PMID: 37882120.
xxix Anaesthetics and sedatives: World Health Organisation. WHO model prescribing information: Drugs used in anaesthesia, 1994. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/41014
xxx Thiopental, IV (contraindication-porphyria): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxxi Suxamethonium: Perry JJ, Lee JS, Sillberg VA, Wells GA. Rocuronium versus succinylcholine for rapid sequence induction intubation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD002788. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18425883
xxxii Rocuronium: Perry JJ, Lee JS, Sillberg VA, Wells GA. Rocuronium versus succinylcholine for rapid sequence induction intubation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD002788. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18425883
Rocuronium: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review: Rocuronium for muscle relaxation for rapid sequence induction, 31 March 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatmentguidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xxxiii Sedation protocols in intensive care: Jackson DL, Proudfoot CW, Cann KF, Walsh T. A systematic review of the impact of sedation practice in the ICU on resource use, costs and patient safety. Crit Care. 2010;14(2):R59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20380720
xxxiv Propofol, IV (short-term sedation: second line option): The South African Society of Anaesthesiologists. South African Society of Anaesthesiologists Sedation Guidelines, 2015. South Afr J AnaesthAnalg 2015;21(2)S1-S36. http://www.sasaweb.com/content/images/SAJAA_V21N2_1665_Sedation_Guideline.pdf
Propofol, IV (short-term sedation: second line option): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxxv Propofol, IV: Ostermann ME, Keenan SP, Seiferling RA, Sibbald WJ. Sedation in the intensive care unit: a systematic review. JAMA. 2000 Mar 15;283(11):1451-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10732935
xxxvi Ketamine, IV: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ketamine (adjunctive or monotherapy) for analgosedation in traumatised intubated adults on mechanical ventilation,September 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Hendrikse C, Ngah V, Kallon II, Leong TD, McCaul M. Ketamine as adjunctive or monotherapy for post-intubation sedation in patients with trauma on mechanical ventilation: A rapid review. Afr J Emerg Med. 2023 Dec;13(4):313-321. doi: 10.1016/j.afjem.2023.10.002. Epub 2023 Nov 10. PMID: 38033380; PMCID: PMC10682541.
xxxvii Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xxxviii Oxygen (medically ill patients): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Primary Healthcare and Adult Hospital Level. Evidence summary – oxygen therapy in acutely ill patients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693- 1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, Güell-Rous MR, Alhazzani W, Soccal PM, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30355567/
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Alves M, Prada L, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Effect of oxygen supply on mortality in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan 1;28(1):11-18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079738/
xxxix Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xl Massive blood transfusion protocol: Groote Schuur Hospital protocol, current. xli Tranexamic acid, IV: CRASH-2 trial collaborators: Shakur H et al. Effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events, and blood transfusion in trauma patients with significant haemorrhage (CRASH-2): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2010; 376:23-32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20554319
Tranexamic acid: Roberts I et al. The importance of early treatment with tranexamic acid in bleedingtrauma patients: an exploratory analysis of the CRASH-2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011; 377:1096-1101. Tranexamic acid: Ker K, Roberts I, Shakur H, Coats TJ. Antifibrinolytic drugs for acute traumatic injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 May 9;(5):CD004896. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25956410
xlii Oxygen (medically ill patients): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Primary Healthcare and Adult Hospital Level. Evidence summary – oxygen therapy in acutely ill patients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693- 1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, Güell-Rous MR, Alhazzani W, Soccal PM, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30355567/
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Alves M, Prada L, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Effect of oxygen supply on mortality in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan 1;28(1):11-18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079738/
xliii Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), , 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xliv Oxygen (medically ill patients): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Primary Healthcare and Adult Hospital Level. Evidence summary – oxygen therapy in acutely ill patients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693- 1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, Güell-Rous MR, Alhazzani W, Soccal PM, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30355567/
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Alves M, Prada L, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Effect of oxygen supply on mortality in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan 1;28(1):11-18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079738/
xlv Ceftriaxone, IV: Gaieski DF, Mikkelsen ME, Band RA, Pines JM, Massone R, Furia FF, Shofer FS, Goyal M. Impact of time to antibiotics on survival in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock in whom early goal-directed therapy was initiated in the emergency department. Crit Care Med. 2010 Apr;38(4):1045-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20048677
Ceftriaxone, IV: Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb SA, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R; Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee including the Pediatric Subgroup. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med. 2013 Feb;41(2):580-637. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23353941
xlvi Ringer Lactate, IV: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Ringer Lactate, IV: Antequera Martin AM, Barea Mendoza JA, Muriel A, Saez I, Chico-Fernandez M, Estrada-Lorenzo JM, et al. Buffered solutions versus 0.9% saline for resuscitation in critically ill adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jul 19;7:CD012247. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31334842
Ringer Lactate, IV: Liu C, Lu G, Wang D, Lei Y, Mao Z, Hu P, Hu J, Liu R, Han D, Zhou F. Balanced crystalloids versus normal saline for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2019 Mar 1. pii: S0735-6757(19)30149-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3085204
Ringer Lactate, IV: Brown RM, Wang L, Coston TD, Krishnan NI, Casey JD, Wanderer JP, Ehrenfeld JM, Byrne DW, Stollings JL, Siew ED, Bernard GR, Self WH, Rice TW, Semler MW; SMART Investigators and the Pragmatic Critical Care Research Group. Balanced Crystalloids Versus Saline in Sepsis: A Secondary Analysis of the SMART Trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Aug 27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31454263
Ringer Lactate, IV: Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, Heels-Ansdell D, Thabane L, Fox-Robichaud A, et al. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161(5):347–55. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/250474
xlvii Oxygen (medically ill patients): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Primary Healthcare and Adult Hospital Level. Evidence summary – oxygen therapy in acutely ill patients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693-1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, Güell-Rous MR, Alhazzani W, Soccal PM, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30355567/
Oxygen (medically ill patients): Alves M, Prada L, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Effect of oxygen supply on mortality in acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan 1;28(1):11-18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079738/
xlviii Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. MedicineReview: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
xlix Dobutamine: MCC registered South African package insert: Pharmaplan Cardiject® powder for IV infusion, 250 mg/vial.
l Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Standard Treatment Guidelines And Essential Medicines List For South Africa, Adult Hospital level, 2020-4_Version 1_June 2024
Chapter 20: Emergencies and Injuries