References - Emergencies and Injuries

¹ Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Resuscitation Council of South Africa. Advanced Cardiac Arrest Algorithm for Suspected Communicable Disease (Respiratory), 2021. https://resus.co.za/
Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations: Atkins DL, Sasson C, Hsu A, Aziz K, Becker LB, Berg RA, et al.; Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and Get With the Guidelines-Resuscitation, Adult and Pediatric Task Forces of the American Heart Association in Collaboration With the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Respiratory Care, American Society of Anesthesiologists, and the Society of Critical Care Anesthesiologists. 2022 Interim Guidance to Health Care Providers for Basic and Advanced Cardiac Life Support in Adults, Children, and Neonates With Suspected or Confirmed COVID-19: From the Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and Get With The Guidelines-Resuscitation Adult and Pediatric Task Forces of the American Heart Association in Collaboration With the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Respiratory Care, the Society of Critical Care Anesthesiologists, and American Society of Anesthesiologists. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2022 Apr;15(4):e008900. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35072519/

² Cardiac pulmonary arrest – COVID-19 considerations & PPE: Brown A, Schwarcz L, Counts CR, Barnard LM, Yang BY, Emert JM, et al. Risk for Acquiring Coronavirus Disease Illness among Emergency Medical Service Personnel Exposed to Aerosol-Generating Procedures. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021 Sep;27(9):2340-2348. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34197282/

³ Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, Butler AR, Alderson P, Smith AF, Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;8(8):CD000567. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD001319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786474
Sodium chloride, 0.9%: Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Dart AB. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;7:CD007594. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881659
Sodium Chloride, 0.9%: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Medicine review - Hydroxyethyl Starch (HES) Solutions for acute hypovolaemia due to blood loss (trauma, intraoperative haemorrhage), 6 October 2015. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Sodium chloride 0.9%: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Ringer Lactate for resuscitation in adults, updated review, August 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatmentguidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁴ Adrenaline/epinephrine, IO (Bradycardia-children): Resuscitation Council of South Africa. Advanced Cardiac Arrest Algorithm, Adult and Paediatric, 2021. https://resus.co.za/

⁵ Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): 2020 American Heart Association. 2020 American Heart Association Guidelines for CPR and ECC https://cpr.heart.org/en/resuscitation-science/cpr-and-ecc-guidelines
Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): Ebell MH, Vellinga A, Masterson S, Yun P. Meta-analysis of the accuracy of termination of resuscitation rules for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Emerg Med J. 2019 Aug;36(8):479-484. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31142552/
Asystole >20 minutes (termination of resuscitation): Lin YY, Lai YY, Chang HC, Lu CH, Chiu PW, Kuo YS, Huang SP, et al. Predictive performances of ALS and BLS termination of resuscitation rules in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest for different resuscitation protocols. BMC Emerg Med. 2022 Mar 27;22(1):53. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35346055/

⁶ Estimating paediatric body weight with paediatric resuscitation tape – PAWPER tape: Manyoni MJ, Goldstein LN, Wells M. A comparison of four weight estimation systems for paediatric resuscitation. S Afr J Surg. 2019 Jun;57(2):40-46. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31342683/ 
Estimating paediatric body weight with paediatric resuscitation tape – PAWPER tape: Wells M. A validation of the PAWPER XLMAC tape for total body weight estimation in preschool children from low- and middle-income countries. PLoS One. 2019 Jan 7;14(1):e0210332. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30615693/
Estimating paediatric body weight with paediatric resuscitation tape – Broselow tape: Wells M, Goldstein LN, Bentley A, Basnett S, Monteith I. The accuracy of the Broselow tape as a weight estimation tool and a drug-dosing guide - A systematic review and metaanalysis. Resuscitation. 2017 Dec;121:9-33. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28958796/
Estimating paediatric body weight (formula): Advanced Life Support Group (ALSG). Advanced Paediatric Life Support: A Practical Approach to Emergencies, 6th Edition. Chichester (West Sussex, UK): BMJ Books; 2016.

⁷ Adrenaline/epinephrine, IV (Bradycardia-children): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁸ Adrenaline/epinephrine, IV (Bradycardia-children): Resuscitation Council of South Africa. Advanced Cardiac Arrest Algorithm, Adult and Paediatric, 2021. https://resus.co.za/
Atropine, IV (Bradycardia-children): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁹ Olanzapine, oral/oral dispersible tablet/IM/: National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Olanzapine for delirium, 9 August 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essentialmedicines-list
Olanzapine, oral /oral dispersible tablet/IM: Taylor, David; Paton, Carol; Kapur, Shitij. The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines, Thirteenth Edition. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2019 Benzodiazepines/ Haloperidol (dosing in the elderly): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022. NICE CG103: Delirium: prevention, diagnosis and management in hospital and long-term care https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg103

¹⁰ Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Ambrose ML, Bowden SC, Whelan G. Thiamin treatment and working memory function of alcohol-dependent people: preliminary findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001 Jan;25(1):112-6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11198705/
Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S. Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 1;2013(7):CD004033. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23818100
Thiamine (alcohol withdrawal/ Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA; Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol: guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002 Nov-Dec;37(6):513-21. Erratum in: Alcohol Alcohol. 2003 MayJun;38(3):291. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12414541/

¹¹ Dextrose 10%, IV: Moore C, Woollard M. Dextrose 10% or 50% in the treatment of hypoglycaemia out of hospital? A randomised controlled trial. Emerg Med J. 2005 Jul;22(7):512-5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15983093

¹² Thiamine (alcoholics/malnourished): Ambrose ML, Bowden SC, Whelan G. Thiamin treatment and working memory function of alcohol-dependent people: preliminary findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001 Jan;25(1):112-6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11198705/
Thiamine (alcoholics/malnourished): Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S. Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 1;2013(7):CD004033. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23818100
Thiamine (alcoholics/malnourished): Thomson AD, Cook CC, Touquet R, Henry JA; Royal College of Physicians, London. The Royal College of Physicians report on alcohol: guidelines for managing Wernicke's encephalopathy in the accident and Emergency Department. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002 Nov-Dec;37(6):513-21. Erratum in: Alcohol Alcohol. 2003 May-Jun;38(3):291. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12414541/

¹³ Thiamine (IV administration): Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary. London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press; 2020.

¹⁴ Morphine, parenteral (Caution): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Morphine for the treatment of acute pulmonary distress, May 2022. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatmentguidelines-and-essential-medicines-list.
Hendrikse C, Ngah V, Kallon II, Thom G, Leong TD, Cohen K, McCaul M. Signal of harm in morphine use in adults with acute pulmonary oedema: A rapid systematic review. S Afr Med J. 2023 Aug 3;113(8):39-43. doi: 10.7196/SAMJ.2023.v113i8.348. PMID: 37882120.

¹⁵ Oxygen (AMI/STEMI): National Department of Health. Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Oxygen cut-off for acutely ill medical inpatients, 9 September 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-andessential-medicines-list
Oxygen (AMI/STEMI): Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, Zamiri N, Almenawer SA, Jaeschke R, Szczeklik W, Schünemann HJ, Neary JD, Alhazzani W. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693-1705. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345

¹⁶ Oxygen (anaphylaxis): Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2021. http://resus.co.za/

¹⁷ Sodium chloride 0.9%, IV: Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2021. http://resus.co.za/

¹⁸ Salbutamol nebulisation (anaphylaxis): Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2021. http://resus.co.za/

¹⁹ Ipratropium nebulisation (anaphylaxis): Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa: Emergency management of anaphylaxis algorithm, 2021. http://resus.co.za/

²⁰ Hydrocortixone, IV/slow IM: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. http://www.health.gov.za/

²¹ Hydrocortisone, IV/slow IM: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. http://www.health.gov.za/

²² Promethazine IM/IM: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. http://www.health.gov.za/

²³ MIdazolam, buccal (children-status epilepticus): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC level. Medicine review: Midazolam, buccal vs diazepam, rectal for the control of seizures in children, 28 May 2014. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
MIdazolam, buccal (children-status epilepticus): McMullan J, Sasson C, Pancioli A, Silbergleit R. Midazolam versus diazepam for the treatment of status epilepticus in children and young adults: a meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2010 Jun;17(6):575-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20624136
Midazolam, buccal (children-status epilepticus): McIntyre J, Robertson S, Norris E, Appleton R, Whitehouse WP, Phillips B, Martland T, Berry K, Collier J, Smith S, Choonara I. Safety and efficacy of buccal midazolam versus rectal diazepam for emergency treatment of seizures in children: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005 Jul 16-22;366(9481):205-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16023510
Midazolam, buccal (children-status epilepticus): Mpimbaza A, Ndeezi G, Staedke S, Rosenthal PJ, Byarugaba J. Comparison of buccal midazolam with rectal diazepam in the treatment of prolonged seizures in Ugandan children: a randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics. 2008; 121:e58–64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166545
Midazolam, buccal (children-status epilepticus): Scott RC, Besag FM, Neville BG. Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomised trial. Lancet.1999; 353:623–6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10030327
Midazolam, buccal (children-second dose): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC level. Medicine review: Buccal midazolam (repeat dose) for status epilepticus in children - review update, 25 May 2017. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list
Midazolam, buccal (children-second dose): Smith R, Brown J. Midazolam for status epilepticus. Aust Prescr. 2017 Feb;40(1):23-25. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28246432
Midazolam, buccal (children-second dose): World Health Organisation. mhGAP Intervention Guide Mental Health Gap Action Programme for mental, neurological and substance use disorders in non-specialized health settings, version 2.0 Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016. http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/mhGAP_intervention_guide_02/en/
Midazolam, buccal (children-second dose): National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Epilepsies: diagnosis and management Clinical guideline [CG137], 2012. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg137

²⁴ Midazolam, IM (children-status epilepticus): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC level. Medicine review: Midazolam, IM vs other benzodiazepines (any route of administration), 31 August 2017. http://health.gov.za/ 
Midazolam, IM (children-status epilepticus): Jain P, Sharma S, Dua T, Barbui C, Das RR, Aneja S. Efficacy and safety of antiepileptic drugs in patients with active convulsive seizures when no IV access is available: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsy research. 2016;122:47-55. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26922313
Midazolam, IM (children-status epilepticus): Momen AA, Azizi Malamiri R, Nikkhah A, Jafari M, Fayezi A, Riahi K, et al. Efficacy and safety of intramuscular midazolam versus rectal diazepam in controlling status epilepticus in children. European journal of paediatric neurology : EJPN : official journal of the European Paediatric Neurology Society. 2015;19(2):149-54. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166545

²⁵ Phenobarbital, oral via naso-gastric tube (children-status epilepticus): Wilmshurst JM, van der Walt JS, Ackermann S, Karlsson MO, Blockman M. Rescue therapy with high-dose oral phenobarbitone loading for refractory status epilepticus. J Paediatr Child Health. 2010 Jan;46(1-2):17-22. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19943867

²⁶ Midazolam, IM (adults-status epilepticus):Silbergleit R, Durkalski V,Lowenstein D,Conwit R,Pancioli A,Palesch Y,Barsan W; NETT Investigators. Intramuscular versus intravenous therapy for prehospital status epilepticus. NEnglJMed. 2012Feb16; 366(7):591-600. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22335736

²⁷ Diazepam, IV (adults-status epilepticus): Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, Alldredge B, BleckTP, Glauser T, Laroche SM, RivielloJJ Jr, Shutter L, Sperling MR, Treiman DM, Vespa PM; Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus Guideline Writing Committee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012 Aug;17(1):3-23. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22528274
Diazepam, IV - Adults status epilepticus: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.

²⁸ Wound washing (rabid animal bite): World Health Organisation. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper – April 2018. Weekly epidemiological record: No 16, 2018, 93, 201–220. http://www.who.int/wer

²⁹ Immunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): World Health Organisation. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper – April 2018. Weekly epidemiological record: No 16, 2018, 93, 201–220. http://www.who.int/wer
Immunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): Sirikwin S, Likanonsakul S, Waradejwinyoo S, Pattamadilok S, Kumperasart S, Chaovavanich A, et al.. Antibody response to an eight‐site intradermal rabies vaccination in patients infected with HumanImmunodeficiency Virus. Vaccine. 2009 Jul 9;27(32):4350‐4. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19487057/ Immunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): Thisyakorn U, Pancharoen C, Wilde H. Immunologic and virologic evaluation of HIV‐1‐infected children after rabies vaccination. Vaccine. 2001 Jan 8;19(11‐12):1534‐7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11163679/
Immunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): Sampath G, Parikh S, Sangram P, Briggs DJ. Rabies post‐exposure prophylaxis in malnourished children exposed to suspect rabid animals. Vaccine. 2005 Jan 19;23(9):1102‐5. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15629352/
Immunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): Rahimi P, Vahabpour R, Aghasadeghi MR, Sadat SM, Howaizi N, Mostafavi E, et al. Neutralizing Antibody Response after Intramuscular Purified Vero Cell Rabies Vaccination (PVRV) in Iranian Patients with Specific Medical Conditions. PLoS One. 2015 Oct 6;10(10):e0139171. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139171. eCollection 2015. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0142244. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26440665/ I
mmunocomprised individuals (dosing of rabies vaccine): Simani OE, Izu A, Violari A, Cotton MF, van Niekerk N, Adrian PV, Madhi SA. Effect of HIV‐1 exposure and antiretroviral treatment strategies in HIV‐infected children on immunogenicity of vaccines during infancy. AIDS. 2014 Feb 20;28(4):531‐41. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24468996/

³⁰ HRIG and ERIG (directions of administration): Madhusudana SN, Ashwin BY, Sudarshan S. Feasibility of reducing rabies immunoglobulin dosage for passive immunization against rabies: results of In vitro and In vivo studies. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013 Sep;9(9):1914‐7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23792347/
HRIG and ERIG (directions of administration): Bharti OK, Madhusudana SN, Wilde H.. Injecting rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) into wounds only: A significant saving of lives and costly RIG. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2017; 13(4):762–765. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28277089/
HRIG and ERIG (directions of administration): Bharti OK, Madhusudana SN, Gaunta PL, Belludi AY. Local infiltration of rabies immunoglobulins without systemic intramuscular administration: An alternative cost‐effective approach for passive immunization against rabies. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2016; 12(3):837–842. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26317441/
HRIG and ERIG (directions of administration): World Health Organisation. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper – April 2018. Weekly epidemiological record: No 16, 2018, 93, 201–220. http://www.who.int/wer

³¹ HRIG and ERIG (summary of regimen): National Institute of Communicable Diseases. Updated: human rabies prophylaxis guideline, draft. https://www.nicd.ac.za/

³² Rabies vaccine dosing: World Health Organisation. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper – April 2018. Weekly epidemiological record: No 16, 2018, 93, 201–220. http://www.who.int/wer
Rabies vaccine dosing: Sirikwin S, Likanonsakul S, Waradejwinyoo S, Pattamadilok S, Kumperasart S, Chaovavanich A, et al.. Antibody response to an eight‐site intradermal rabies vaccination in patients infected with HumanImmunodeficiency Virus. Vaccine. 2009 Jul 9;27(32):4350‐4. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19487057/
Rabies vaccine dosing: Thisyakorn U, Pancharoen C, Wilde H. Immunologic and virologic evaluation of HIV‐1‐infected children after rabies vaccination. Vaccine. 2001 Jan 8;19(11‐12):1534‐7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11163679/
Rabies vaccine dosing: Sampath G, Parikh S, Sangram P, Briggs DJ. Rabies post‐exposure prophylaxis in malnourished children exposed to suspect rabid animals. Vaccine. 2005 Jan 19;23(9):1102‐5. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15629352/
Rabies vaccine dosing: Rahimi P, Vahabpour R, Aghasadeghi MR, Sadat SM, Howaizi N, Mostafavi E, et al. Neutralizing Antibody Response after Intramuscular Purified Vero Cell Rabies Vaccination (PVRV) in Iranian Patients with Specific Medical Conditions. PLoS One. 2015 Oct 6;10(10):e0139171. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139171. eCollection 2015. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0142244. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26440665/
Rabies vaccine dosing: Simani OE, Izu A, Violari A, Cotton MF, van Niekerk N, Adrian PV, Madhi SA. Effect of HIV‐1 exposure and antiretroviral treatment strategies in HIV‐infected children on immunogenicity of vaccines during infancy. AIDS. 2014 Feb 20;28(4):531‐ 41. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24468996/

³³ Tetanus vaccination (human bites): Muguti GI, Dixon MS. Tetanus following human bite. Br J Plast Surg. 1992 Nov-Dec;45(8):614- 5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1493537
Tetanus vaccination (human bites): Patil PD, Panchabhai TS, Galwankar SC. Managing human bites. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2009 Sep;2(3):186-90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20009309

³⁴ HIV PEP (human bites): Cresswell FV, Ellis J, Hartley J, Sabin CA, Orkin C, Churchill DR. A systematic review of risk of HIV transmission through biting or spitting: implications for policy. HIV Med. 2018 Apr 23. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29687590

³⁵ Tetatnus toxoid vaccine (scorpion stings and spider bites): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

³⁶ Local anaesthetic ophthamlmic drops (therapeutic group): Lawrenson JG, Edgar DF, Tanna GK, Gudgeon AC. Comparison of the tolerability and efficacy of unit-dose, preservative-free topical ocular anaesthetics. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1998 Sep;18(5):393-400. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10023471/

³⁷ NSAID caution: World Health Organisation: Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite#tab=overview

³⁸ Snake polyvalent antivenom (indications): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.

³⁹ Snake antivenom criteria: Wood D, Sartorius B and Hift R. Snakebite in north-eastern South Africa: clinical characteristics and risks for severity. S Afr Fam Pract 2016; 58(2):62–67. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/20786190.2015.1120934

⁴⁰ Povidone iodine 5% cream (septic burns): Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC Review: Burns dressings scoping review, October 2021. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁴¹ Activated charcoal (single dose): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Single dose activated charcoal for poisonings, May 2019. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-andessential-medicines-list
Activated charcoal (single dose): Chyka PA, Seger D; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position statement: single-dose activated charcoal. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997;35(7):721-41. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15822758
Activated charcoal (single dose): Rosenberg J, Benowitz NL, Pond S. Pharmacokinetics of drug overdose. Clin Pharmacokinet 1981; 6:161– 192. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7016383
Activated charcoal (single dose): Yeates PJA, Thomas SHL. Effectiveness of delayed activated charcoal administration in simulated paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 49:11–14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7016383
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Pelttari S, Neuvonen PJ. The effect of activated charcoal on the absorption of fluoxetine, with special reference to delayed charcoal administration. Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 79:270– 273. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8936562
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of delayed administration of activated charcoal on the absorption of conventional and slow-release verapamil. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997; 35:263–268. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9140320
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Ojala-Karlsson P, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of activated charcoal on the pharmacokinetics of pholcodine, with special reference to delayed charcoal ingestion. Ther Drug Monit 1997; 19:46– 50. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9029746
Activated charcoal (single dose): Green R, Grierson R, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. How long after drug ingestion is activated charcoal still effective? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2001; 39:601– 605. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11762668

⁴² Atropine, IV (children): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁴³ Atropine, IV (bolus dose): Abedin MJ, Sayeed AA, Basher A, Maude RJ, Hoque G, Faiz MA. Open-label randomized clinical trial of atropine bolus injection versus incremental boluses plus infusion for organophosphate poisoning in Bangladesh. J Med Toxicol. 2012 Jun;8(2):108-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351300

⁴⁴ Naloxone, IV/IM (children): Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, Samson RA, Hazinski MF, Atkins DL, Berg MD, de Caen AR, Fink EL, Freid EB, Hickey RW, Marino BS, Nadkarni VM, Proctor LT, Qureshi FA, Sartorelli K, Topjian A, van der Jagt EW, Zaritsky AL. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.Circulation. 2010 Nov 2;122(18 Suppl 3):S876-908. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20956230
Naloxone, IV/IM (children): Sivilotti ML. Flumazenil, naloxone and the 'coma cocktail'. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):428-36. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26469689/

⁴⁵ Naloxone, IV/IM (adults): Sivilotti ML. Flumazenil, naloxone and the 'coma cocktail'. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):428-36. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26469689/

⁴⁶ N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Yarema MC, Johnson DW, Berlin RJ, Sivilotti ML, Nettel‐Aguirre A, Brant RF, et al. Comparison of the 20‐hour intravenous and 72‐hour oral acetylcysteine protocols for the treatment of acute acetaminophen poisoning. Ann Emerg Med. 2009 Oct;54(4):606‐14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19556028
N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Williamson K, Wahl MS, Mycyk MB. Direct comparison of 20‐hour IV, 36‐ hour oral, and 72‐hour oral acetylcysteine for treatment of acute acetaminophen poisoning. Am J Ther. 2013 Jan;20(1):37‐40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23299230
N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Rumack and Bateman. Acetaminophen and acetylcysteine dose and duration: past, present and future. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2012;50(2):91‐98. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22320209

⁴⁷ Activated charcoal:Bradberry SM, Vale JA. Multiple-dose activated charcoal: a review of relevant clinical studies. J ToxicolClinToxicol. 1995;33(5):407-16. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7650765
Whole bowel irrigation:Mayer AL, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. Multiple-dose charcoal and whole-bowel irrigation do not increase clearance of absorbed salicylate. Arch Intern Med. 1992 Feb;152(2):393-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1739372

⁴⁸ N-acetylcysteine, oral (adverse effects): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.

⁴⁹ Paracetmaol poisoning cut-off (children): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁵⁰Monitoring in occupational exposures: National Department of Health. National Clinical Guidelines of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in occupational and non-occupational exposures, December 2020. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/elibrary/national-clinicalguidelines-post-exposure-prophylaxis-pep-occupational-and-non

⁵¹ Dolutegravir-based PEP regimen: WHO. Consolidated guidelines on HIV prevention, testing, treatment, service delivery and monitoring: recommendations for a public health approach, July 2021. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031593
Dolutegravir-based PEP regimen: McAllister JW, Towns JM, McNulty A, Pierce AB, Foster R, Richardson R, et al. Dolutegravir with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-emtricitabine as HIV postexposure prophylaxis in gay and bisexual men. AIDS. 2017;31(9):1291–5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28301425
Dolutegravir-based PEP regimen National Department of Health. National Clinical Guidelines of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in occupational and non-occupational exposures, December 2020. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/elibrary/national-clinicalguidelines-post-exposure-prophylaxis-pep-occupational-and-non

⁵²Protease-inhibitor- based PEP regimen: Ford N, Shubber Z, Calmy A, Irvine C, Rapparini C, Ajose O, et al. Choice of antiretroviral drugs for postexposure prophylaxis for adults and adolescents: A systematic review. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015;60 Suppl 3:S170–6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25972499
Protease-inhibitor- based PEP regimen: National Department of Health. National Clinical Guidelines of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in occupational and non-occupational exposures, December 2020. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/elibrary/national-clinicalguidelines-post-exposure-prophylaxis-pep-occupational-and-non

⁵³ Hepatitis B immunoglobulin: (administration within 7 days): Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary. London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press; 2020.

⁵⁴ Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelinesand-essential-medicines-list https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelinesand-essential-medicines-list
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): Moorhouse M, Bekker LG, Black V, Conradie F, Harley B, Howell P, Maartens G, Papavarnavas T, Rebe K, Sorour G, Venter F, Wallis CL. Guideline on the management of occupational and non-occupational exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus and recommendations for post-exposure prophylaxis: 2015 Update. South Afr J HIV Med. 2015 Nov 10;16(1):399. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29568597 
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guidelines: Post exposure Prophylaxis to Prevent Hepatitis B Virus Infection. MMWR 2006,56(RR-16), Appendix B. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5516a3.htm?s_cid=rr5516a3_e
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC level. Medicine review: Human Hepatitis B immunoglobulin for hepatitis exposure, March 2018. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁵⁵ PEP Dose in adults and children: Horak J, Venter WDF, Wattrus C, et al. Southern African HIV Clinicians Society 2023 Guideline for post-exposure prophylaxis: Updated recommendations. S Afr J HIV Med. 2023;24(1), a1522. https://doi.org/10.4102/ sajhivmed.v24i1.1522.

⁵⁶ Copper IUD (emergency contraception): Turok DK, Jacobson JC, Dermish AI, Simonsen SE, Gurtcheff S, McFadden M, Murphy PA. Emergency contraception with a copper IUD or oral levonorgestrel: an observational study of 1-year pregnancy rates. Contraception. 2014 Mar;89(3):222-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24332433/
Copper IUD (emergency contraception): FSRH Guideline (April 2019) Overweight, Obesity and Contraception. BMJ Sex Reprod Health. 2019 Apr;45(Suppl 2):1-69. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31053605/

⁵⁷ Levonorgestrel 1.5 mg oral (emergency contraception): Shen J, Che Y, Showell E, Chen K, Cheng L. Interventions for emergency contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jan 20;1(1):CD001324. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30661244/

⁵⁸ Levonorgesterol, oral - emergency contraception (double dose): Carten ML, Kiser JJ, Kwara A, Mawhinney S, Cu-Uvin S. Pharmacokinetic interactions between the hormonal emergency contraception, levonorgestrel (Plan B), and Efavirenz. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2012;2012:137192. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22536010
Levonorgesterol, oral - emergency contraception (double dose): Tittle V, Bull L, Boffito M, Nwokolo N. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interactions between antiretrovirals and oral contraceptives. ClinPharmacokinet. 2015 Jan;54(1):23-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25331712
Levonorgesterol, oral - emergency contraception (double dose): Jatlaoui TC and Curtis KM. Safety and effectiveness data for emergency contraceptive pills among women with obesity:a systematic review. Contraception 94 (2016) 605–611. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27234874

⁵⁹ STI prophylaxis: Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, Reno H, Zenilman JM, Bolan GA. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1-187. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34292926/

⁶⁰ Azithromycin, oral (STI prophylaxis for children): Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, Reno H, Zenilman JM, Bolan GA. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1- 187. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34292926/
Metronidazole, oral (STI prophylaxis for children): Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, Reno H, Zenilman JM, Bolan GA. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1- 187. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34292926/
Ceftriaxone, IM (STI prophylaxis for children): Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, Reno H, Zenilman JM, Bolan GA. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1- 187. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34292926/

⁶¹ Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Adult Hospital level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-andessential-medicines-list
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): Moorhouse M, Bekker LG, Black V, Conradie F, Harley B, Howell P, Maartens G, Papavarnavas T, Rebe K, Sorour G, Venter F, Wallis CL. Guideline on the management of occupational and non-occupational exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus and recommendations for post-exposure prophylaxis: 2015 Update. South Afr J HIV Med. 2015 Nov 10;16(1):399. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29568597
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guidelines: Post exposure Prophylaxis to Prevent Hepatitis B Virus Infection. MMWR 2006,56(RR-16), Appendix B. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5516a3.htm?s_cid=rr5516a3_e 
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HCW-occupational prophylaxis): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-PHC level. Medicine review: Human Hepatitis B immunoglobulin for hepatitis exposure, March 2018. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

⁶² Lidocaine 2% injection: National Department of Health, Essential Drugs Programme. Paediatric Hospital Level STGs and EML, draft. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/content/standard-treatment-guidelines-and-essential-medicines-list

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Standard Treatment Guidelines and Essential Medicines List for South Africa, Primary Healthcare, 2020-4_Version 1.1_October 2024

Chapter 21: Emergencies and Injuries