References - Poisoning
i Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, oral: Blaylock RS. Antibiotic use and infection in snakebite victims. S Afr Med J. 1999 Aug;89(8):874-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10488365 ii NSAID caution: World Health Organisation: Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite#tab=overview iii Polyvalent antivenom: Wood D, Webb
i Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, oral: Blaylock RS. Antibiotic use and infection in snakebite victims. S Afr Med J. 1999 Aug;89(8):874-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10488365
ii NSAID caution: World Health Organisation: Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite#tab=overview
iii Polyvalent antivenom: Wood D, Webb C, DeMeyer J. Severe snakebites in northern KwaZulu-Natal: treatment modalities and outcomes. S Afr Med J. 2009 Nov;99(11):814-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20218483
Polyvalent antivenom: Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):362- 82.http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2546/2581
SAMF 14th edition, page 653
iv Antivenom (period to administer): Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):362-82. http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2546/2581
v Polyvalent snake antivenom (indications): Wood D, Sartorius B, Hift R. Snakebite in NE South Africa: clinical characteristics and risks for severity. S Afr Fam Prac 2016; 58(2):62-67. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20786190.2015.1120934
Polyvalent snake antivenom (indications): Wood, Sartorius, Hift. Classifying snakebite in South Africa: validating a scoring system. S Afr Med J 2017;107(1):46-51. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28112091
Hardcastle TC et al (progressive cytotoxic envenomation) . Approach to the diagnosis and management of snakebite envenomation in South Africa in humans: The hospital phase – emergency unit general principles. SAMJ June 2023 Vol 113, No6.
vi Adrenaline (epinephrine), SC: Nuchpraryoon I, Garner P. Interventions for preventing reactions to snake antivenom. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD002153. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21572992
Adrenaline (epinephrine), SC: de Silva HA, Pathmeswaran A, Ranasinha CD, Jayamanne S, Samarakoon SB, Hittharage A, Kalupahana R, Ratnatilaka GA, Uluwatthage W, Aronson JK, Armitage JM, Lalloo DG, de Silva HJ. Low-dose adrenaline, promethazine, and hydrocortisone in the prevention of acute adverse reactions to antivenom following snakebite: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2011 May;8(5):e1000435. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21572992
vii Polyvalent antivenom (neurotoxic, cytotoxic or unidentified snakebites): Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):362- 82.http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2546/2581
Polyvalent antivenom: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
viii Polyvalent antivenom (cytotoxic Mozabique spitting cobra bite): World Health Organisation: Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite#tab=overview
ix Boomslang monovalent antivenom (neurotoxic, cytotoxic or unidentified snakebites): Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):362- 82. http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2546/2581
Boomslang monovalent antivenom: Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite#tab=overview
x Local anaesthetic ophthamlmic drops (therapeutic group): Lawrenson JG, Edgar DF, Tanna GK, Gudgeon AC. Comparison of the tolerability and efficacy of unit-dose, preservative-free topical ocular anaesthetics. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1998 Sep;18(5):393-400. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10023471/
xi Polyvalent antivenom (snake venom in the eye): Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):362-82. http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2546/2581
xii Paracetamol, oral: Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Scorpion sting in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):356- 61.http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2545/2580
xiii Lidocaine. 1-2%, infiltration:Aksel G, Güler S, Doğan N, Corbacioğlu S. A randomized trial comparing intravenous paracetamol, topical lidocaine, and ice application for treatment of pain associated with scorpion stings. Hum ExpToxicol. 2014 Oct 10. pii: 0960327114551394. [Epub ahead of print] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25304965
Lidocaine. 1-2%, infiltration: Chippaux JP. Emerging options for the management of scorpion stings. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2012;6:165-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22826633
xiv Opiates (caution): Müller GJ, Modler H, Wium CA, Veale DJH, Marks CJ. Scorpion sting in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME Oct 2012; 30(10):356-61. http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2545/2580
xv Scorpion sting: Muller, G J et al. Scorpion sting in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. Continuing Medical Education, [S.l.], v. 30, n. 10, p. 356-361, sep. 2012. ISSN 2078-5143. Available at: . Date accessed: 18 Apr. 2023.
xvi Calcium gluconate 10%, bolus IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022. Package Insert: Calcium Gluconate Injection Fresenius solution for injection. Fresenius Kabi Manufacturing SA (Pty) Ltd. Last revised 7 February 2023. Shann F. Drug doses: 17th Edition. 2017.
xvii Spider antivenom: Muller GJ, Wium CA, Marks CJ, du Plessis CE, Veale DJH. Spider bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management. CME October 2012;30(10): 382-91. http://www.cmej.org.za/index.php/cmej/article/view/2547/2582
xviii Calcium gluconate 10%, bolus IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022. Package Insert: Calcium Gluconate Injection Fresenius solution for injection. Fresenius Kabi Manufacturing SA (Pty) Ltd. Last revised 7 February 2023. Shann F. Drug doses: 17th Edition. 2017.
xix Gastric lavage: Benson BE, Hoppu K, Troutman WG, Bedry R, Erdman A, Höjer J, Mégarbane B, Thanacoody R, Caravati EM; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position paper update: gastric lavage for gastrointestinal decontamination. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2013 Mar;51(3):140-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23418938
xx Activated charcoal (multi-dose): Position statement and practice guidelines on the use of multi-dose activated charcoal in the treatment of acute poisoning. American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. J ToxicolClinToxicol. 1999;37(6):731- 51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10584586
xxi Activated charcoal (single dose): National Department of Health: Affordable Medicines, EDP-Adult Hospital level. Medicine Review: Single dose activated charcoal for poisonings, May 2019. http://www.health.gov.za/
Activated charcoal (single dose): Chyka PA, Seger D; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position statement: single-dose activated charcoal. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997;35(7):721-41. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15822758
Activated charcoal (single dose): Rosenberg J, Benowitz NL, Pond S. Pharmacokinetics of drug overdose. Clin Pharmacokinet 1981; 6:161– 192. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7016383
Activated charcoal (single dose): Yeates PJA, Thomas SHL. Effectiveness of delayed activated charcoal administration in simulated paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 49:11–14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7016383
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Pelttari S, Neuvonen PJ. The effect of activated charcoal on the absorption of fluoxetine, with special reference to delayed charcoal administration. Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 79:270– 273. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8936562
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of delayed administration of activated charcoal on the absorption of conventional and slow-release verapamil. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997; 35:263–268. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9140320
Activated charcoal (single dose): Laine K, Kivisto¨ KT, Ojala-Karlsson P, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of activated charcoal on the pharmacokinetics of pholcodine, with special reference to delayed charcoal ingestion. Ther Drug Monit 1997; 19:46– 50. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9029746
Activated charcoal (single dose): Green R, Grierson R, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. How long after drug ingestion is activated charcoal still effective? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2001; 39:601– 605. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11762668
xxii Whole bowel irrigation (with polyethylene glycol): Thanacoody R, Caravati EM, Troutman B, Hojer J, Benson B,Hoppu K et al. Position paper update: whole bowel irrigation for gastrointestinal decontamination of overdose patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015;53:5-12. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25511637
xxiii Paracetamol overdosing – repeated subtherapeutic ingestion: Chiew AL, Reith D, Pomerleau A, Wong A, Isoardi KZ, Soderstrom J, Buckley NA. Updated guidelines for the management of paracetamol poisoning in Australia and New Zealand. Med J Aust. 2020 Mar;212(4):175-183. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31786822/
xxiv Paracetamol nomogram: Chiew AL, Reith D, Pomerleau A, Wong A, Isoardi KZ, Soderstrom J, Buckley NA. Updated guidelines for the management of paracetamol poisoning in Australia and New Zealand. Med J Aust. 2020 Mar;212(4):175-183. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31786822/
Paracetamol nomogram: Daly FF, Fountain JS, Murray L, Graudins A, Buckley NA; Panel of Australian and New Zealand clinical toxicologists. Guidelines for the management of paracetamol poisoning in Australia and New Zealand - -explanation and elaboration. A consensus statement from clinical toxicologists consulting to the Australasian poisons information centres. Med J Aust. 2008 Mar 3;188(5):296- 301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18312195
xxv N-Acetycysteine,IV (dosing regimen): Chiew AL, Reith D, Pomerleau A, Wong A, Isoardi KZ, Soderstrom J, Buckley NA. Updated guidelines for the management of paracetamol poisoning in Australia and New Zealand. Med J Aust. 2020 Mar;212(4):175-183. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31786822/
N-Acetycysteine,IV (dosing regimen): Wong A, Graudins A. Simplification of the standard three-bag intravenous acetylcysteine regimen for paracetamol poisoning results in a lower incidence of adverse drug reactions. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2016;54(2):115-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26594846
xxvi N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Yarema MC, Johnson DW, Berlin RJ, Sivilotti ML, Nettel‐Aguirre A, Brant RF, et al. Comparison of the 20‐hour intravenous and 72‐hour oral acetylcysteine protocols for the treatment of acute acetaminophen poisoning. Ann Emerg Med. 2009 Oct;54(4):606‐14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19556028
N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Williamson K, Wahl MS, Mycyk MB. Direct comparison of 20‐hour IV, 36‐hour oral, and 72‐hour oral acetylcysteine for treatment of acute acetaminophen poisoning. Am J Ther. 2013 Jan;20(1):37‐40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23299230
N-acetylcysteine, oral (dosing for paracetamol poisoning): Rumack and Bateman. Acetaminophen and acetylcysteine dose and duration: past, present and future. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2012;50(2):91‐98. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22320209
xxvii N-acetylcysteine, oral (adverse effects): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxviii Activated charcoal:Bradberry SM, Vale JA. Multiple-dose activated charcoal: a review of relevant clinical studies. J ToxicolClinToxicol. 1995;33(5):407-16. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7650765
Whole bowel irrigation:Mayer AL, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. Multiple-dose charcoal and whole-bowel irrigation do not increase clearance of absorbed salicylate. Arch Intern Med. 1992 Feb;152(2):393-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1739372
xxix Activated charcoal:Bradberry SM, Vale JA. Multiple-dose activated charcoal: a review of relevant clinical studies. J ToxicolClinToxicol. 1995;33(5):407-16. Review.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7650765
Whole bowel irrigation:Mayer AL, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. Multiple-dose charcoal and whole-bowel irrigation do not increase clearance of absorbed salicylate. Arch Intern Med. 1992 Feb;152(2):393-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1739372
xxx Dextrose (salicylate poisoning): Kuzak N, Brubacher JR, Kennedy JR. Reversal of salicylate-induced euglycemic delirium with dextrose. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2007 Jun-Aug;45(5):526-9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17503260/
xxxi Sodium bicarbonate (salicylate poisoning): Prescott LF, Balali-Mood M, Critchley JA, Johnstone AF, Proudfoot AT. Diuresis or urinary alkalinisation for salicylate poisoning? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1982 Nov 13;285(6352):1383- 6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6291695/
xxxii Haemodialysis (salicylate poisoning): McCabe DJ, Lu JJ. The association of hemodialysis and survival in intubated salicylate-poisoned patients. Am J Emerg Med. 2017 Apr 10. pii: S0735-6757(17)30280-2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28438446
Haemodialysis (salicylate poisoning): Juurlink DN, Gosselin S, Kielstein JT, Ghannoum M, Lavergne V, Nolin TD, Hoffman RS; EXTRIP Workgroup. Extracorporeal Treatment for Salicylate Poisoning: Systematic Review and Recommendations From the EXTRIP Workgroup. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Aug;66(2):165-81. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25986310/
xxxiii Naloxone: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022. Naloxone: FDA approved package insert – Hospira Inc.: Naloxone Hydrochloride, 2015. http://medlibrary.org/lib/rx/meds/naloxone-hydrochloride-8/
xxxiv TCAs - toxicity: David M. Taylor, Thomas R. E. Barnes, Allan H. Young. The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry.13th edition. Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2019. (page 770).
xxxv Sodium bicarbonate, IV (tricyclic antidepressant poisoning): Bruccoleri RE, Burns MM. A Literature Review of the Use of Sodium Bicarbonate for the Treatment of QRS Widening. J Med Toxicol. 2016 Mar;12(1):121-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26159649
xxxvi Phenytoin (tricyclic antidepressant poisoning): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxxvii Flumazenil (tricyclic antidepressant poisoning): Penninga EI, Graudal N, Ladekarl MB, Jürgens G. Adverse Events Associated with Flumazenil Treatment for the Management of Suspected Benzodiazepine Intoxication - A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses of Randomised Trials. Basic ClinPharmacolToxicol. 2016 Jan;118(1):37-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26096314
xxxviii Desferrioxamine, IV: Tenenbein M. Benefits of parenteral deferoxamine for acute iron poisoning. JToxicolClinToxicol. 1996;34(5):485-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8800185
Desferrioxamine, IV: Tenenbein M, Kowalski S, Sienko A, Bowden DH, Adamson IY. Pulmonary toxic effects of continuous desferrioxamine administration in acute iron poisoning. Lancet. 1992 Mar 21;339(8795):699-701. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1347583
Desferrioxamine, IV: South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xxxix Deferoxamine (IV admin) Drug Monograph. Deferoxamine. Clinical Key accessed 3 February 2023. https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/content/6-s2.0-170?scrollTo=%23top
Package Insert. Desferal. Novartis 10 Aug 2006.
xl Desferrioxamine, IV (pregnancy): Piccioni MG, Capone C, Vena F, Del Negro V, Schiavi MC, D'Ambrosio V, Giancotti A, Smacchia MP, Brunelli R. Use of deferoxamine (DFO) in transfusion-dependent β-thalassemia during pregnancy: A retrospective study. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jan;59(1):120-122. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32039778/
xli Activated charcoal (multi-dose): Ghannoum M, Wiegand TJ, Liu KD, Calello DP, Godin M, Lavergne V, Gosselin S, Nolin TD, Hoffman RS; EXTRIP workgroup. Extracorporeal treatment for theophylline poisoning: systematic review and recommendations from the EXTRIP workgroup. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2015 May;53(4):215-29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25715736
xlii Potassium chloride, IV: Ghannoum M, Wiegand TJ, Liu KD, Calello DP, Godin M, Lavergne V, Gosselin S, Nolin TD, Hoffman RS; EXTRIP workgroup. Extracorporeal treatment for theophylline poisoning: systematic review and recommendations from the EXTRIP workgroup. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2015 May;53(4):215-29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25715736
xliii Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xliv Haemodialysis: Activated charcoal (multi-dose): Ghannoum M, Wiegand TJ, Liu KD, Calello DP, Godin M, Lavergne V, Gosselin S, Nolin TD, Hoffman RS; EXTRIP workgroup. Extracorporeal treatment for theophylline poisoning: systematic review and recommendations from the EXTRIP workgroup. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2015 May;53(4):215-29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25715736
xlv Flumazenil: Penninga EI, Graudal N, Ladekarl MB, Jürgens G. Adverse Events Associated with Flumazenil Treatment for the Management of Suspected Benzodiazepine Intoxication - A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses of Randomised Trials. Basic ClinPharmacolToxicol. 2016 Jan;118(1):37- 44.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26096314
xlvi Whole bowel irrigation (with polyethylene glycol): Thanacoody R, Caravati EM, Troutman B, Hojer J, Benson B, Hoppu K et al. Position paper update: whole bowel irrigation for gastrointestinal decontamination of overdose patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015;53:5-12. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25511637
xlvii Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 12th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
xlviii Haemodialysis (early referral): Decker BS, Goldfarb DS, Dargan PI, Friesen M, Gosselin S, Hoffman RS, Lavergne V, Nolin TD, Ghannoum M; EXTRIP Workgroup. Extracorporeal Treatment for Lithium Poisoning: Systematic Review and Recommendations from the EXTRIP Workgroup. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015 May 7;10(5):875-87. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25583292
xlix Pyridoxine, oral: Lheureux P, Penaloza A, Gris M. Pyridoxine in clinical toxicology: a review. Eur J Emerg Med. 2005 Apr;12(2):78-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15756083
Pyridoxine, oral: Dilrukshi M, Ratnayake C, Gnanathasan C. Oral pyridoxine can substitute for intravenous pyridoxine in managing patients with severe poisoning with isoniazid and rifampicin fixed dose combination tablets: a case report. BMC Res Notes 2017;10:370. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28789699
l Benzodiazepines (seizures in INH toxicity): Hoffman RS, Howlands MA, Lewin Na, Nelson LS, Goldfrank LR. Goldfrank’s Toxicologic Emergencies. 10th ed. China: McGraw-Hill Education; 2015.
li Phenytoin (avoid in isoniazid poisoning): Hoffman RS, Howlands MA, Lewin Na, Nelson LS, Goldfrank LR. Goldfrank’s Toxicologic Emergencies. 10th ed. China: McGraw-Hill Education; 2015.
lii Calcium channel blocker poisonings and beta-blocker poisonings (similar management): Graudins A, Lee HM, Druda D. Calcium channel antagonist and beta-blocker overdose: antidotes and adjunct therapies. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):453-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26344579
liii Gut decontamination (Gastric lavage, activated charcoal administration or whole bowel irrigation): St-Onge M, Anseeuw K, Cantrell FL, Gilchrist IC, Hantson P, Bailey B, Lavergne V, Gosselin S, Kerns W 2nd, Laliberté M, Lavonas EJ, Juurlink DN, Muscedere J, Yang CC, Sinuff T, Rieder M, Mégarbane B. Experts Consensus Recommendations for the Management of Calcium Channel Blocker Poisoning in Adults. Crit Care Med. 2017 Mar;45(3):e306-e315. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27749343
liv Atropine, IV: Proano L, Chiang WK, Wang RY. Calcium channel blocker overdose. Am J Emerg Med. 1995 Jul;13(4):444-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7605536
lv Sodium chloride, 0.9%, IV: Proano L, Chiang WK, Wang RY. Calcium channel blocker overdose. Am J Emerg Med. 1995 Jul;13(4):444-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7605536
lvi Calcium gluconate 10%, IV (calcium channel blocker toxicity): Proano L, Chiang WK, Wang RY. Calcium channel blocker overdose. Am J Emerg Med. 1995 Jul;13(4):444-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7605536
Calcium gluconate 10%, IV (calcium channel blocker toxicity): Graudins A, Lee HM, Druda D. Calcium channel antagonist and beta-blocker overdose: antidotes and adjunct therapies. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):453-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26344579
lvii Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
lviii Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
lix Endoscopic evaluation (within 24-48 hours): Millar AJ, Cox SG. Caustic injury of the oesophagus. Pediatr Surg Int. 2015 Feb;31(2):111-21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25432099
lx Ethanol (indications for antidote): McMartin K, Jacobsen D, Hovda KE. Antidotes for poisoning by alcohols that form toxic metabolites. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):505-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551875
lxi Ethanol (dosing of antidote): McMartin K, Jacobsen D, Hovda KE. Antidotes for poisoning by alcohols that form toxic metabolites. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):505-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551875
lxii Co-factor therapy (ethylene glycol poisoning): Frommer JP, Ayus JC. Acute ethylene glycol intoxication. Am J Nephrol. 1982;2(1):1-5. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7180899/
lxiii Metabolic acidosis cautions: McMartin K, Jacobsen D, Hovda KE. Antidotes for poisoning by alcohols that form toxic metabolites. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016 Mar;81(3):505-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551875
lxiv Ethanol antidote and haemodialysis (methanol poisoning): Jacobsen D, McMartin KE. Antidotes for methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997;35(2):127-43. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9120880
Ethanol antidote and haemodialysis (methanol poisoning): Roberts DM, Yates C, Megarbane B, Winchester JF, Maclaren R, Gosselin S, Nolin TD, Lavergne V, Hoffman RS, Ghannoum M; EXTRIP Work Group. Recommendations for the role of extracorporeal treatments in the management of acute methanol poisoning: a systematic review and consensus statement. Crit Care Med. 2015 Feb;43(2):461-72. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25493973
lxv Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
lxvi Intermediate syndrome in organophosphate poisoning: Eddleston M, Buckley NA, Eyer P, Dawson AH. Management of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Lancet. 2008 Feb 16;371(9612):597-607. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706760
lxvii Organophosphate poisoning – healthcare worker protection: Little M, Murray L; Poison Information Centres of New South Wales, Western Australia, Queensland, New Zealand, and the Australian Capital Territory. Consensus statement: risk of nosocomial organophosphate poisoning in emergency departments. Emerg Med Australas. 2004 Oct-Dec;16(5-6):456-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15537409
Organophosphate poisoning – healthcare worker protection: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Nosocomial poisoning associated with emergency department treatment of organophosphate toxicity--Georgia, 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001 Jan 5;49(51-52):1156-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1119894
Organophosphate poisoning – healthcare worker protection: Stacey R, Morfey D, Payne S. Secondary contamination in organophosphate poisoning: analysis of an incident. QJM. 2004 Feb;97(2):75-80. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1474762
lxviii Atropine, IV (bolus dose): Abedin MJ, Sayeed AA, Basher A, Maude RJ, Hoque G, Faiz MA. Open-label randomized clinical trial of atropine bolus injection versus incremental boluses plus infusion for organophosphate poisoning in Bangladesh. J Med Toxicol. 2012 Jun;8(2):108-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351300
lxix Atropine, IV (protocol): Eddleston M, Buckley NA, Eyer P, Dawson AH. Management of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Lancet. 2008 Feb 16;371(9612):597-607. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706760
Atropine, IV (protocol): Eddleston M, Dawson A, Karalliedde L, Dissanayake W, Hittarage A, Azher S, Buckley NA. Early management after self-poisoning with an organophosphorus or carbamate pesticide - a treatment protocol for junior doctors. Crit Care. 2004 Dec;8(6):R391-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15566582
lxx Diazepam, IV (seizures in organophosphate poisoning): Eddleston M, Buckley NA, Eyer P, Dawson AH. Management of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Lancet. 2008 Feb 16;371(9612):597-607. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706760
lxxi Freshfrozen plasma: Ansell J, Hirsh J, Hylek E, Jacobson A, Crowther M, Palareti G; American College of Chest Physicians. Pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008 Jun;133(6 Suppl):160S198S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574265
lxxii Watt BE et al. Anticoagulant rodenticides. Toxicol Rev 2005:24(4); 259-269 Toxinz and Toxbase – June 2022 printouts Oxford Desk Reference Toxicology 2014 p311-312. Goldfrank Toxicologic Emergencies 10th ed. P820 and 836-838.
lxxiii Phenytoin (seizures secondary to poisonings): South African Medicines Formulary. 14th Edition. Division of Clinical Pharmacology. University of Cape Town, 2022.
lxxiv Heavy metal poisoning (flu-like syndrome): Brenner BE, Keyes D. Metal Fume Fever. [Updated 2023 Aug 21]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK583199/.
Nelson LS, Odujebe OA. Simple Asphyxiants and Pulmonary Irritants. In: Nelson LS, Howland M, Lewin NA, Smith SW, Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS. eds. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 11e. McGraw-Hill Education; 2019. Accessed April 16, 2024. https://accesspharmacy.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2569§ionid=210264279 https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/occupational-and-environmental-medicine/metal-fumefever-and-polymer-fume-fever?query=metal%20fume%20fever%20and%20polymer%20fume%20fever
lxxv Heavy metal poisoning (signs and symptoms): AfriTox 2019. [Accessed September 2019]. www.afritox.co.za
Standard Treatment Guidelines and Essential Medicines List for South Africa, Adult Hospital Level, 2020-2024_Version 2.0_27 March 2025
Chapter 19 Poisoning_References - Poisoning